Republic, The (Plato), 277, 280, 287, 396
republic of letters: epistolary circuits of, 12; and freedom of speech, 37; and replacement of kings’ empire, 35; and salons, 377; and Mme de Staël, 332, 333
rêve de D’Alembert, Le (D’Alembert’s Dream) (Diderot), 371, 383
Riccoboni, Marie-Jeanne, 342–43
Richelieu, Armand-Jean du Plessis, Cardinal: and the Académie française, 7–8; chateau of, 255, 258, 264; and concentration of power with king, 263; and royal edict of 1643 about theater, 176
Rimbaud, Arthur: and the apostrophe, 489; on the bourgeoisie, 441, 565; and consciousness, 488; and difficult modes of expression, 28; and disordering of all the senses, 486, 490, 508–9; and exclamation marks, 489; and “I is an other,” 485, 509; Illuminations of, 487, 488, 489; and motivation for writing, 32; and poet as seer, 508–9; and poetic language, 490, 509; and poetry, 4, 10, 470, 485–91, 508–10; and prose poem, 489, 490, 509; and recklessness, 486–89; and self-consciousness, 485–86; and surrealism, 554; and symbolism, 486; and translation of by Beckett, 620; and use of the dash, 488–89; and the vagabond consciousness, 10; and youthful energy, 571. See also saison en enfer, Une (A Season in Hell) (Rimbaud)
Robbe-Grillet, Alain, 14, 519, 599, 608, 616, 630
Roland, “Manon,” 338, 340–41
Roman culture: and ancient Rome, 142, 149, 151, 164, 270, 273; and antiquity, 50, 68, 137, 149–50, 158, 270, 272–73; and cycles of civilizations, 151; and depictions of emotion, 206; and gods, 341; and Greco-Latin epic hexameter, 127; and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, 68; and Horace, 140; and humanism, 151; and imitation of Greek writers, 143; and Latin poets, 274; and law, 49; and literature, 56, 78, 143, 144; and Lucian of Samosata, 261; and lyric poetry, 113; and military leaders, 138; and numismatics, 49; and paganism in poetry and the arts, 286–87; poets of, 68, 113, 138–39, 144; and Romanticism, 439; and Seneca, 158, 160, 161, 194, 195; and translation of poems, 145, 147; and Virgil, 117
Roman de la Rose (Romance of the Rose), 8, 29, 32, 138, 141
Romanticism: and adversaries the neo-classics, 444, 445; and aesthetic experience, 288, 440, 444; and Angel or Demon, 503; and artistic freedom, 442; and artistic genius, 288; and authors’ use of Bonaparte as a model, 440–41; and battle of Hernani (Hugo), 440, 443–44, 446; and the century, 42; and challenge to conservative nationalism, 12; and the color red, 438–39; and consciousness in Europe, 6, 40, 446; and cosmopolitanism, 12; and De l’Allemagne (On Germany), 332; and democratic forces, 22; and dominant, emergent, and residual stages, 16–17; and First and Second Romanticism, 440; and the fragment in literature, 246; and the great quarrels, 16, 440, 445; and Hugo’s Hernani, 436–38, 440, 443–44, 446; and Hugo’s Romantic dramas, 437–38; and imagination and feeling, 40, 444–45; and importance of the future, 447; and influence of romance novels, 456; and Italian Giorgio Agamben, 446; and Julien in Le rouge et le noir (Stendhal), 426; and levels of historicity, 446, 447–48; and medieval culture, 439–40, 445; and middle or low social classes in plays, 442; and moral and religious beliefs as relative, 257; and Alfred de Musset, 28, 440, 441; and the past, 445–46, 470; and Pléiade poets, 43; and poetry, 43, 501, 507; and primitivism, 288; and promotion of the present, 446–47; and protests at the Comédie Française, 436, 441; and Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns, 275; and return to Renaissance and antiquity, 438; and roman personnel, 595; and Romantic manifesto Racine and Shakespeare (Stendhal), 190, 444, 445; and Rousseau as pre-Romantic, 394; and Shakespeare as Master of theater, 12; and subjectivity, 507; and the sublime, 288, 443, 501; and taste for Memorial de Sainte-Hélène, 440; and youth, 436, 439, 444, 448. See also Racine et Shakespeare (Stendhal)
Ronsard, Pierre de: and alexandrine line, 4, 116, 119, 122, 123, 126, 127, 128–34; and attack by Mellin de Saint-Gelais, 123; and beloved home as theme, 115, 116, 117–18; and Catholic Church, 114, 132; Christian sources of, 126; and decasyllabic line, 4, 115–16, 118, 123, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131, 132; and defense of monarchy, 132–34; and discours, 128, 131, 132, 134; education of, 117, 119, 120, 159; elegies of, 128, 131, 132, 134; family of, 117, 118, 119, 120; father of, 118, 119, 120; and feminine and masculine rhymes, 116, 133; and French language, 113, 115, 134; and golden age of France, 123–24, 129; and golden era of French poetry, 113, 117; and Greek and Roman lyricists, 113, 115–16, 117; and heroic verse, 126, 127, 134; and Homeric and Virgilian epic, 123, 125, 128; hymns of, 121, 129–32, 134; and ideal of poet as seer and intellectual, 116–17; and identification of Nature with God, 118, 121; and imitation of the Ancients, 114, 116, 117, 122, 126; and Institution for Charles IX, 133; as the king’s poet, 114, 121, 124; as leader of Pléiade poets, 4; and love for “jardins de Touraine,” 118–19; and love poetry, 121, 123, 124–25, 128, 130–31; and lyric poetry, 113; and Montaigne, 158; and music, 113, 116, 121, 122, 125, 128; odes of, 113–16, 117, 120–26, 131, 134; and ode to Michel de l’Hôpital, 123, 124–25; on order of kinship, 4; as page to dauphin François and Charles, 119; and pastoral poems, 118–19; patrons of, 121, 123–24, 134; Jacques Peletier du Mans as tutor to, 120; and philosophical poetry, 113, 121, 123, 130; poetic themes of, 116, 117, 121, 123, 124–27, 132–34; and poetry of praise, 115–116, 117, 121, 123–24; and political poetry, 113, 132; prosody of, 4, 113, 122, 123; as a public intellectual, 4, 113, 114, 123, 135; and Quatre premiers livres des odes, 113, 114, 117, 118, 121, 126; and relationship with Joachim du Bellay, 120, 125; as royal counselor, 113, 114; in service to dauphin Henri, 120; and sung poetry, 124, 125–26; and teacher Jean Dorat, 120, 125; and versification, 123, 126, 129–30, 131, 133–34
rouge et le noir, Le (The Red and the Black) (Stendhal): and character Julien’s infatuation with Napoleonic example, 421–26, 440; and the color red, 439; and false noble identity, 424; and hypocrisy, 423, 424–25; and Napoleon Bonaparte, 417, 421, 422, 423, 424, 426; and Paris, 421; and realism, 426; and Mme de Rênal, 421, 424–25, 426, 432, 440; and Romanticism, 426, 439; and Julien Sorel, 416, 417, 420, 421–25, 426, 429, 432–33, 440; and upward social mobility, 417, 426
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques: abandonment of children of, 398, 400–401, 402; and architecture of bourgeois house, 322–23; and artisanal class, 361; and authorship, 406–7, 408; bed in novel of, 326; bohemian status of, 377, 378, 381; and botany, 409; celebrity of, 371, 395; childhood and parents of, 399–400; Confessions of, 377, 393, 398–405, 409; and conjectural history, 397; and Contrat social (The Social Contract), 398, 399; and corruption of literature, science, and the arts, 395; and corruption of literature from social state, 395, 398, 411; death of, 402; and denunciation of women writers, 335; and desire to revert to state of nature, 397–98; and development of autobiography, 44, 339–40, 393, 394, 407; and devotion to truth, 408–9; and dialogues Rousseau juge de Jean-Jacques (Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques), 394, 404–8; and Discours sur l’origine et les fondements de l’inégalité parmi les hommes, 393, 395, 397–98; and education, 337, 398, 399, 401–2; and education of children, 399–402; and the eighteenth-century novel, 314, 320–24; and Emile, 398–99, 401, 402; and encyclopedists, 395, 399, 402; and end of friendship with Diderot, 380, 410; and the epistolary novel, 320–24, 327; and “Essai sur l’origine des langues” (“Essay on the Origin of Languages”), 286; and essays on by Mme de Staël, 332; as an exile, 26, 399, 403; and fatherhood, 401, 402; and fictionality, 396, 411; and the first person, 10, 393, 394, 405; and First Romanticism, 440; and Geneva, 401, 637; and Homer, 286; and human nature, 396, 398, 407, 411; and immorality of classical tragedy, 287; and importance of sentiment, 40, 320, 505; and interiority, self, and society, 10, 43, 394–98; and making drafts of work public, 245; and man’s natural goodness, 394, 399, 400, 405–6, 409; and metaphor of self-portraiture, 393, 394, 398; and Montaigne, 168, 393, 408; and moral and political function of literature, 286–87, 397–98; and natural man, 393–94, 396, 398, 405–6; and nature, 322, 323–24, 380, 393, 394, 397, 405, 410–11; and orality of epics, 286; and origins, 393, 395, 396, 397; and philosophy, 130, 272, 276, 393–411; and political programs,
398; and postcript to Rousseau juge de Jean-Jacques, 408; and primitivism, 397, 398; and “public” virtues, 320; and Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns, 286; and the querelle des bouffons, 379; and rationalism, 322; and refusal of patronage, 377; and reverie, 398, 399, 409, 410–11; and Rêveries du promeneur solitaire (Reveries of the Solitary Walker), 402, 403, 406, 408–11; and Rousseauist novel, 313, 320–24; and self-knowledge, 395, 408–9, 518; and social codes of men of letters, 384, 388; solitude of, 394, 398, 405, 408, 410; and state of nature, 393–98, 406, 411; as target in play Les philosophes (Palissot), 380; work of, 294, 381, 393, 394, 408. See also Julie ou la nouvelle Héloïse
Rousseau juge de Jean-Jacques (Rousseau), 394, 404–8, 409
Ruskin, John, 519–20
Russia: autocratic regime in, 534–35; and Bolsheviks, 534; and communism, 535, 544, 596, 621–22; and Stalin’s policies, 546
Sade, Marquis de: and the eighteenth-century novel, 313, 314, 324–27; incarceration of, 10; and motivation for writing, 32; and philosophical experience, 313, 324–26; and private space for sex, 324; and prosecution of publisher for obscenity, 38; and violence, 326. See also philosophie dans le boudoir, La
Sainte-Beuve, Charles-Augustin: and beginnings of French literature, 16; and critical journalism, 6, 40; and national literary culture, 13; opposition from Proust to approach of, 521, 522; and prose as medium of French literature, 242, 339; and Riccoboni’s novels, 343; and roman personnel, 595; and seventeenth-century classicism, 12
Saint-Simon, Duc de, 518, 536
saison en enfer, Une (A Season in Hell) (Rimbaud), 486, 487–88, 490, 509
salons: and aristocratic salons, 428; and authors as celebrities, 26; and Balzac’s Rastignac, 415, 417; and Catherine the Great, 382; and Célimène in Le misanthrope (Molière), 185; codes and manners of, 8, 39, 414, 429; and conversations as a novel’s beginning, 215; and divisio, 81; and Enlightenment, 29, 377, 382; and fairy tales, 224; games of, 227; hostesses of, 29, 30, 221, 224, 330, 332, 339; and intimacy of the salon of Apollo, 322–23, 324; in the novel, 316, 322, 323, 324; and philosophes, 381; and play Les philosophes (Palissot), 380; political significance of, 221; and Rabouillet salon, 221; salon hostess Marie du Deffand, 339; satires of conversations of, 222; and success and social prestige, 418; and women’s conversation, 221
Sand, George, 440, 462
Sarraute, Nathalie, 600, 616
Sartre, Jean-Paul: and Académie française, 634; and “adventure,” 606, 607; and L’âge de raison (The Age of Reason), 519; and American novelists, 518; and bad faith, 599, 605–6, 611; and Les chemins de la libérté (The Roads to Freedom), 544, 597; and committed literature, 630; cultural role of, 123; and definition of writing, 629; and dialectics of engagement, 629; and diary form, 595, 596; and Duthuit’s journal Transition, 630; and L’être et le néant, 600; as a French author, 637; and literature of extreme situations, 544–45, 547; and litterature engagée (engaged literature), 536; and metaphor of stone for novel, 601; and Les mouches, 597; and La nausée, 536, 595–613, 630; as opposed to Camus, 596; and “Orphée noir” (“Black Orpheus”), 646; philosophical writings of, 604, 646; plays of, 597; and recognition of Aimé Césaire’s work, 591; and use of metaphor, 608–9; and What Is Literature?, 597, 629, 630
Scève, Maurice, 3, 117, 131
science: and Jean le Rond d’Alembert, 371; and atheism, 373; and authors’ aims, 28; and Beaumarchais’s invention, 361; and botany, 410; and comparative science of man, 393, 395–96; and concern for creativity, 276; and corruption of literature, science, and the arts, 395; and Emilie du Châtelet, 338; and experimental and human sciences, 29; and Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle, 271; and Galileo, 269; and happiness, 351; and imagination of fiction, 260; and Linnaeus’s system of classification, 410; and modern science, 276; and natural history, 395; and natural science, 172, 269, 351; and Newtonian ideas, 338, 351; as part of philosophy, 278; and political science, 173, 182, 187; and the scientific method, 295; and scientific revolution, 277; and the seventeenth century, 8, 251, 269; and social sciences, 411; and split between humanities and sciences, 276–77; and theory of human progress, 272; and the universe, 253, 260; and work of Cyrano de Bergerac, 260; and zoology, 426. See also anthropology
Scudéry, Madeleine de: as a celebrated novelist, 202; and heroic romances, 202, 215; and Lettres provinciales (Pascal), 243; and map of tenderness, 215–16, 226; and Rabouillet salon, 221
Sébillet, Thomas, 139, 140, 144
self: autonomy of, 232; awareness of, 43, 201, 220; and Emma Bovary, 455; centralization of, 472, 486; and community, 43, 235, 239; and dandyism, 470–71, 486; and discovery of in Marivaux’s plays, 361; and divided self of Irish writers, 618; and expression, 161, 235; and “I is an other,” 485, 509; and inner life protected by poetry, 580; and language, 239; and memory, 518; and metaphor of self-portraiture, 393, 398; and modern period, 29, 201, 231, 239, 394; and Montaigne’s self-exploration, 159, 165, 167; multiplication of, 471–72; and nature, 395, 410–11; nature of, 155, 235, 393–95; and others, 238, 394; and personal identity, 44, 220, 233; and public life, 220, 233; and race, 201; and reading, 31; and reputation, 236, 238; and Romantic self, 595; and Rousseau, 43, 44, 394–95, 409–11; and self-interest, 236; and self-knowledge, 395, 408–9; and self-love, 231, 232, 235, 236, 248n1; and the seventeenth century, 231, 233–34; solitude of, 410; study of, 168, 395–96; and virtue and vice, 233; and writing about public service, 44; and written confession of sins, 44, 393. See also Rousseau, Jean-Jacques
Seneca, 158, 160, 161, 194, 195
Senghor, Leopold, 575, 576, 591, 646
Sévigné, Mme de, 224, 338
sexuality: and adultery, 197, 462, 464–65, 467; and ancient works, 288; and anxiety, 620; and Les bijoux indescrets (The Indiscreet Jewels), 372; and Anne Boleyn, 223; and the boudoir or bedroom, 313–21, 324–27; and Breton’s relationship with Nadja, 555–56; and Isabelle de Charrière’s Caliste, 331; and celebrated painting Le verrou (Fragonard), 319; and Célimène in Le misanthrope (Molière), 185; and character Albertine, 525; and character of Fanchette, 367; covering up of, 327; and criminals in Saint-Lazare prison, 365; and culture of galanterie, 226; and L’école des femmes (The School for Wives) (Molière), 176–77; and L’école des filles, 222; and erotic passions, 205, 253, 320–21, 323–24, 326–27; and femininity, 315, 320–21; and feminism, 31, 103; and the Heptameron (Marguerite de Navarre), 93, 94, 95–96, 98, 102, 103; and heroine’s sexual bliss, 175; and homosexual character in Candide (Voltaire), 302–3; and homosexuality, 515, 521, 522; and L’immoraliste (The Immoralist), 522; and incest, 93, 103, 106–7, 108, 197; and indecency, 525, 526; and Louise Labé’s poem in Italian, 149; and Lucien’s exploits in Balzac novels, 417, 430; in Madame Bovary (Flaubert), 454, 461, 462; and male sexual hypocrisy, 364; and marital fidelity, 93, 98; and The Marriage of Figaro (Beaumarchais), 367; and masculinity, 94; and Mercier and Camier, 624; and Montaigne’s Essays, 166; and novels of Sade, 324–27; and passions, 459, 461, 462; and Phèdre (Racine), 194; and power, 94; and prostitution, 620; in Proust’s writing, 527–28; and public and private contrast, 327; and rape, 93, 103; and Le rêve de D’Alembert (D’Alembert’s Dream), 383; and “Manon” Roland’s Mémoires particuliers, 341; and “seigneurial rights,” 366; and sex as part of identity, 201; and sexual humiliation, 399; and sexual love as subject of theater, 176; and sexual mores, 295, 327; and tale in newspaper Mercure Galant, 226; and Tartuffe (Moliere), 178; and treatment of women, 302–3; and trial of poet Théophile de Viau for atheism and homosexuality, 230; and Valmont’s seduction of Mme de Tourvel, 318–19; and vows of celibacy, 100; and women’s bodies, 314–15. See also Phèdre (Racine)
Shakespeare, William: and the body, 166; and the century, 15; and character of Edmund in King Lear, 201; and character of Hamlet, 157; comedy of, 305; and discovery of in the eighteenth century, 12; and the French seventeenth century, 17; lovers in work of, 308; and Montaigne, 102, 152, 168; plays of, 152; and Romantic manifesto Racine and Shakespeare (Stendhal), 191; and Sonnets, 152; and
Une tempête (Césaire), 588; as a transitional figure, 157; and work of Pierre Boiastuau, 92
Slave Island (Marivaux), 359–60
slavery, 300–301, 334, 347, 581, 584; and Haiti, 586; and master/slave duo, 588. See also class; racism; Slave Island (Marivaux)
Socrates, 166, 167, 252, 260, 261, 396
Songe (Dream) (du Bellay), 149, 150, 151
Sorbonne: and banning of books, 78; and encounter between Breton and Tzara, 560; and Index librorum prohibitorum, 78; persecutions of, 50, 91–92; and theology, 36, 47, 49, 50, 51, 241, 242; traditionalism of, 51, 91–92, 276
Spain: and Africa, India, and South America, 257; and colonization, 256–57; comic novels from, 261; and the Declaration of Vienna, 425; and film Espoir: Sierra de Teruel, 548, 551; and French princes as hostages, 118; and influence of Petrarch, 117; and philosopher Raymond Sebondus, 159; poetry of, 140, 144, 152; and Ronsard’s poetry, 121, 124; and the seventeenth century, 22; and support of Catholics in France, 157; and treaty with France, 91
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