General Junot had been in a quandary over how to proceed strategically against the British. Although they were growing stronger, he had little prospect of swift reinforcement from the Emperor, as troops would have to undertake a long and arduous march through Spain. Whilst he had the option of standing siege in Lisbon, the enemy’s command of the seas would see that they received more supplies than he did, and relief might be long in coming. The only true way to secure the capital and Portugal itself was to defeat them in battle. Accordingly he marched on Vimeiro, arriving early on the morning of 21 August.
As the French attacked, Wellesley kept his forces on the reverse slopes of the ridgeline to limit the ricochet effect of enemy cannon fire. The French advanced in huge columns and were fired upon by British artillery and skirmishers as they climbed the slope. Rifleman Harris was one of these skirmishers and recalled the effect of cannon fire on the enemy: ‘I saw regular lanes torn through their ranks as they advanced, which were immediately closed up again as they marched steadily on. Whenever we saw a round shot thus go through the mass, we raised a shout of delight.’46 Yet it was not only round shot that flayed the oncoming columns. The newly invented shrapnel, fired from howitzers, was used in battle for the first time at Vimeiro, the projectiles inflicting many casualties as they exploded above their targets.
In his eagerness to engage the enemy, Junot pressed his columns forward recklessly and they advanced piecemeal up the slopes, virtually ignoring the British on their left. This allowed battalions to fire into the columns’ flanks, making the resulting musket duel an almost foregone conclusion. The British could fire every musket and had sufficient width of formation to curve their line round the head of the column at both sides, partially enveloping their attackers, whereas only the first few ranks of the columns could fire. Outgunned, the French desperately tried to deploy into line to respond, but manoeuvring under heavy fire proved too much for men already shaken by cannon shot and skirmishers and they broke and fled. Generals Charlot and Delaborde were wounded and, when they fled downhill, the guns accompanying their attack were captured.
Junot now committed his reserve of four grenadier battalions, which met a similar fate. Although they endured the artillery barrage stolidly as they advanced, they were received by converging fire from at least three battalions. A private in the 71st Highland Regiment recalled how the line stood impassively while the French came on, shouting imperialist slogans as they toiled upwards. They fired a volley as they crested the ridge, cried out three distinct cheers and fell ominously silent as the French advanced with the bayonet:
In our first charge I felt my mind waver; a breathless sensation came over me. The silence was appalling. I looked alongst (sic) the line. It was enough to assure me. The steady, determined scowl of my companions assured my heart and gave me determination. How unlike the noisy advance of the French!47
The private believed that after what they had already endured, the unexpected silence after the cheers unnerved the French and, when they levelled their bayonets and rushed them, they broke and fled back down the slope rather than stand to meet the attack.
Wellesley ordered a charge by the 20th Light Dragoons at the enemy centre and, though it fared well initially, cutting down many infantrymen, they were counter charged by French cavalry when they pressed their advance too far. In the swirling mêlée of horsemen that followed, the regiment was badly cut up, losing forty-five casualties, including their colonel, and leaving at least ten prisoners in enemy hands as they withdrew in disorder. An attempt to outflank the British on the eastern ridge was also thwarted, although the village of Vimeiro itself was fiercely contested at the point of the bayonet.
After sustaining heavy losses, Junot pulled his army back and headed for Lisbon. Burrard had arrived halfway through the struggle and allowed Wellesley to continue in command, but objected to mounting a pursuit when the French began to withdraw. Wellesley would later complain that greater losses could have been inflicted on the enemy had he been permitted to do this despite the lack of cavalry.48 The field of battle presented a grim sight:
…the birds of prey were devouring the slain. Here I beheld a sight, for the first time, even more horrible – the peasantry prowling about, more ferocious than the beasts and birds of prey, finishing the work of death, and carrying away whatever they thought worthy of their grasp. Avarice and revenge were the causes of these horrors. No fallen Frenchman that showed the least signs of life was spared. They even seemed pleased with mangling the dead bodies.49
Strategically, the French were now in a bad position. They had been soundly beaten and, though they could retire to Lisbon, their prospects during a protracted siege were poor. While the British were supplied by sea, the countryside was aroused against the French and any relief force would have to march through Spain to reach them. Junot sent General Kellerman to propose an armistice.
Lieutenant-General Sir Hew Dalrymple arrived the day after Vimeiro and assumed command, being senior to both Wellesley and Burrard. He and Burrard believed that the French were far from beaten and they managed to let this slip to Kellerman, who overheard Dalrymple whispering: ‘We are not in a very good situation; let us hear him.’50 In time the Convention of Cintra was drawn up and Dalrymple urged Wellesley to sign it, since he was officially a member of the Government. Reluctantly he assented, but the next morning he wrote to Viscount Castlereagh, Secretary for War, decrying his role in the affair and pointing out that his endorsement was his only real contribution.
The Convention of Cintra was indeed controversial and damaging to all concerned. Though Napoleon was furious at this setback, he could not have hoped for better terms. The French agreed to evacuate Portugal without becoming prisoners and were transported back to France by the Royal Navy. They retained their artillery, horses, baggage and personal possessions, and Portuguese collaborators were allowed to accompany them. In return captured Portuguese artillery and prisoners were given back and fortresses had to be left intact. British troops even escorted the garrisons of Elvas and Almeida through Spanish and Portuguese forces that had massed to hem them in.
The Portuguese were incensed by the damage done to their country and the brutality of French methods. Furthermore, the departing enemy had an ambiguous interpretation of the ‘personal possessions’ referred to in the treaty, and took away large amounts of plunder looted from Portugal. Portuguese sympathisers, who did not leave with the French, were set upon and murdered, and British soldiers were required to escort their enemies to the quaysides. During the embarkation one officer witnessed the following:
…General Kellerman had nigh fallen victim to the fury of the mob by his own imprudence, in venturing on shore, after the French troops were all embarked. Being recognised by some Portuguese, he was immediately attacked by the populace …after receiving some severe blows, he fell into the boat… Our brave soldiers leaped in with him and parrying off the strokes of his justly enraged enemies, they rowed away and left him in safety – wondering at the magnanimity of our gallant and generous soldiers.51
Public opinion was outraged by the perceived climbdown and Dalrymple, Burrard and Wellesley were called before a court of inquiry, while Sir John Moore took over in the Peninsula. Luckily, Wellesley had supporters in the Government, including Castlereagh, though his signature on the Convention nearly damned him. The inquiry did acknowledge the extraordinary circumstances he suffered in being relieved of command by two commanders in quick succession, and they eventually cleared him of any wrong-doing. Fortunately news of Napoleon’s arrival in the Peninsula and Moore’s disastrous retreat distracted the public and they lost interest in the investigation. Dalrymple received a severe reprimand and never received another active command, but Wellesley emerged from the scandal with his reputation only slightly tarnished.
Nevertheless, Britain had gained a great deal from the Convention of Cintra. It was true that harsher terms could have been imposed, but the primary objective of ejecting the enemy from Portugal
had been achieved. The slight on Portuguese honour was forgotten in the rejoicing that followed Lisbon’s liberation, and a new government was formed in the Portuguese Regent’s absence, containing three members of the original council who had remained in the country, two members of the insurgency and the Bishop of Oporto. British forces were welcome to remain in the country, and Britain now had the Continental foothold she so desperately needed.
Unsurprisingly, Sir Arthur was ill tempered after the inquiry and back in Dublin Castle he did his best to contend with a role he disliked, along with his increasingly difficult marriage. Kitty seemed incapable or unwilling to comply with his instructions for running their household and complained to friends about her husband’s remote and indifferent attitude. His unhappiness led him into the arms of the noted courtesan Harriette Wilson, whom he met through Mrs Porter’s establishment in Berkeley Square. He visited her with increasing frequency and, though he endeavoured to be discreet, the affair would eventually lead to a minor scandal.52
Meanwhile, the situation in the Peninsula had deteriorated after Moore’s army was evacuated at Corunna. Portugal still retained a British garrison under General Craddock, but he did not enjoy the confidence of the Government and a second French invasion was imminent. Writing to Castlereagh, Wellesley claimed that the geography of the Peninsula, along with the people’s resistance, allowed Portugal to be defended by a relatively small army. 30,000 men would suffice he claimed, as long as they were well supplied with artillery and cavalry in which the Portuguese were deficient. If the Portuguese army could be reorganised along British lines, the prospects of not only retaining Portugal, but also of intervening in Spain, were excellent. Since he was one of the few generals with direct experience in the region, the establishment decided to give him a second chance.
Wellesley returned to Lisbon in April 1809. He had resigned from his Irish post, but this appointment was far from permanent and had restrictions. For example, he was expressly forbidden from entering Spain with his army without securing the Government’s approval. Political expediency denied him a large army, so he would have to ensure he made the best of the meagre resources available and to avoid losses. He also received the rank of Marshal General in the Portuguese army, conveying supreme authority over their forces. The daunting task of modernising and improving the Portuguese army had been entrusted to Major-General William Beresford. Portugal’s military had been poorly financed and neglected for over fifty years, the Regent having so little faith in his forces that he fled in 1807 without contemplating resistance.
The French were experiencing serious problems in Napoleon’s absence. Fearing a potential rival, the Emperor refused to appoint a supreme military commander from amongst his marshals and, technically, King Joseph commanded French forces in Spain. However, Napoleon constantly refused his brother’s requests and regularly interfered, undermining his authority. Jealously abounded in the marshalate and these proud, ambitious men were united only in their contempt for Joseph. Though Napoleon had left a huge force of nearly 280,000 men, logistical problems and the vast scale of the Peninsula meant that these could not concentrate as a cohesive force and large numbers could only be united for short periods of time. Naturally, they had to be split up into smaller armies. Napoleon’s attempts to direct Spanish operations from a distance also proved impracticable and damaging. Geographically, the region bore more similarity with Africa than Europe, and he often failed to consider local difficulties that were only apparent to those present.
Nevertheless, Marshal Jean Soult had invaded Northern Portugal hoping to seize Lisbon before the British could reinforce their position. He advanced as far as the city of Oporto, situated near the mouth of the River Douro. He had hoped for further support from Northern Spain, but Marshal Ney was having immense difficulties there attempting to pacify the Asturias and Galicia. Opposed by regulars and guerrilla bands, once one rising was put down, resistance would spring up elsewhere in an endless cycle. Napoleon had hoped for three French armies to converge on Lisbon, which looked feasible on the map but was proving impracticable on the ground. Marshal Victor had conducted a simultaneous advance through the Guadiana Valley, defeating the Spanish General Cuesta, but had been forced to stop through lack of supplies. Soult was considering withdrawal when he heard that Wellesley was marching against him.
Soult had the opportunity to attack the British as they marched towards Oporto, but decided to maintain his strong defensive position behind the river. Wellesley had garrisoned Lisbon and sent 12,000 men under General Mackenzie to watch Victor’s forces in case he resumed his march. He also sent Beresford, with 6,000 men, to reinforce the Portuguese General Silveira at Lamego, hoping to cut Soult’s line of retreat. After a fiercely fought action by his vanguard with advanced French units, he reached the Douro’s southern bank.
Every boat in the area had been moored on the northern banks or destroyed and Soult felt confident that the Allies would attack near the estuary with naval assistance. However, after an extensive reconnaissance, Wellesley determined that a sunken ferry some miles upriver from the city could be salvaged and, with the assistance of locals, secured three wine barges. The river was 500 yards wide, so a crossing would be dangerous as enemy sentries were likely to detect it, but Wellesley decided to take a risk. Placing a battery in the highly placed Sierra Convent to cover the crossing, he ordered the 3rd Regiment to begin rowing across. Meanwhile, he despatched a brigade under General John Murray to cross by the salvaged ferry at Barca Alvintas.
The Douro’s banks were extremely steep at this point and this, along with good fortune and sleepy French sentries, saw the British gain complete surprise. By the time General Foy had been alerted, the Buffs had established themselves in a large seminary on the northern bank and were knocking loopholes in the walls to defend it. Foy immediately ordered a counter-attack to dislodge them, sending three battalions of the 17th Line against them. However, the British infantry put up staunch resistance and the fire of the battery in the convent broke up the French attacks and silenced their artillery support. After an hour of heavy fighting, Soult feared his army might be cut in half, since the enemy were ferrying across more men all the time and ordered a retreat.
The French were forced to abandon their wounded, 1,700 men being taken prisoner, along with the loss of some artillery in the city, but Soult managed to evade Murray’s outflanking move as he fled northwards. Unaccountably, Murray refused to attack the retreating French, whom he believed were too strong for his brigade. Though some brave efforts to impede them were made by Stewart with the 14th Light Dragoons, Soult’s army continued to make an orderly withdrawal when a mere demonstration of force might have allowed Wellesley time to bring up more forces to trap the French between them.
Soult was forced to retreat through the mountains with the Allies at his heels. With British to the west and Portuguese forces under Silveira to the east, he was forced to withdraw northwards over narrow tracks, hoping he could endure the inevitable guerrilla ambushes and capture the bridges along his line of retreat intact. Most of the French horses and baggage were abandoned, and the cannon were placed muzzle to muzzle and destroyed. Soult’s war chest was opened and the gold passed out to individual soldiers rather than left behind. Luckily for the French, Silveira lost his way and failed to block their retreat, and Wellesley abandoned his pursuit after inflicting some loss on their rearguard. The French lost 4,500 men on this hazardous retreat, leaving Soult’s army a shadow of its former self.
Wellesley had triumphed and would have destroyed a French army, but for Soult’s luck and the ineffeciency of some junior commanders. Yet the success was ill received in London, with no battle honours awarded to any of the regiments who took part, and Captain Stanhope, who carried the despatch, failed to receive the traditional promotion for heralding a victory. It had been Wellesley’s biggest offensive gamble since the battle of Assaye, and some in Westminster considered it reckless. The troops had been desperately exposed while cross
ing the river, and could have been annihilated if Soult had placed sufficient men along the riverbank. Wellesley largely owed his victory to Soult’s complacency, but it had been an awesome demonstration of nerve and decisiveness nonetheless.
Portugal was temporarily secure, and Wellesley felt confident enough to consider mounting an offensive into Spain. While Napoleon was occupied in central Europe, his forces in Spain had largely confined themselves to defensive operations. It took some time to secure Government approval for the venture, but eventually this was forthcoming. Meanwhile, Wellesley concentrated on improving the army and in June made the decision to divide the army into divisions. Initially only four divisions were created, varying between 3,000–4,000 men, except for the first division which possessed 6,000. The cavalry possessed its own division (eventually increased to two) and each had its own skirmishers and attached artillery. They would also contain specialised units such as engineers and provosts, and would eventually acquire their own individual identities in much the same way as pride and comradeship was generated at regiment level. These divisions were designed to be capable of independent action if necessary, and were partially inspired by the need to match the French corps system that had proved so effective in Europe.
When Wellesley crossed the border he hoped to locate and defeat Marshal Victor’s forces, known to be in the region of Talavera. The plan was to combine with Spanish forces under General Cuesta and have General Francisco Venegas move to cut the French line of retreat. Negotiations with the Spanish went badly from the start. Cuesta objected to being pressured by a far younger general whom he knew was vying for the position of supreme Allied commander with London and Cadiz. Guedalla described him as being: ‘Composed in equal parts of pride and failing health, he was the embodiment of Spain at its very worst – old, proud, incompetent and ailing…’53
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