233 she made a request: The studies were led by Harvard University’s Ellen Langer. See Ellen Langer, Arthur Blank, and Benzion Chanowitz, “The Mindlessness of Ostensibly Thoughtful Action: The Role of Placebic Information in Interpersonal Interaction,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 36, No. 6 (1978), pp. 635-642. An account of this work can be found in Robert B. Cialdini, Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion (New York: William Morrow, 1984), pp. 4-5.
APPENDIX A: A Note on Your Personal Negotiation Style
242 almost as far as do organized courses on negotiation: J. Z. Rubin and R. B. Brown, The Social Psychology of Bargaining and Negotiation (New York: Academic Press, 1975); R. C. Bordone, “Teaching Interpersonal Skills for Negotiation and for Life,” Negotiation Journal 16, No. 4 (2000), pp. 377-385; R. S. Fortgang, “Taking stock: An analysis of negotiation pedagogy across four professional fields,” Negotiation Journal 16, No. 4 (2000), pp. 325-338. A related, more modern line of psychological pedagogy on negotiation deals with cognitive errors to which people of all races, genders, and interpersonal orientations are prone. Led by Max Bazerman (building on foundations laid by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky), negotiation teachers have learned to instruct their students about systematic biases in human cognition that can cloud negotiator judgment. The experimental evidence for such phenomena as “fixed pie” biases, gain-loss framing, availability, endowment effects, escalation of commitment, and overconfidence is strong, and classroom demonstrations of many of these biases are relatively easy to conduct. The pedagogical goal is to help people learn to recognize cognitive biases, overcome them in appropriate situations, and become more effective negotiators as a result. Like materials on gender, race, or culture, materials on cognitive psychology complement rather than substitute for content related to bargaining styles. The biases are not predispositions toward handling negotiation situations so much as they are hardwired quirks in the human information-processing system that affects many forms of decision making. D. Kahneman and A. Tversky, “Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision Under Risk,” Econometrica, Vol. 47 (1979), pp.136-291; D. Kahneman, D. P. Slovic and A. Tversky, Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
242 bargaining styles can play crucial roles in negotiation: R. W. Gilkey and L. Greenhalgh, “The Role of Personality in Successful Negotiating,” Negotiation Journal, Vol. 2, No. 3 (1986), pp. 245-256.
248 “thief thinks everybody steals”: R. G. H. Siu, Folk Wisdom and Management: 3,333 Proverbs (Washington, D.C.: Manuscript, 1994), p. 13.
248 assume that others are cooperative: H. H. Kelly and A. Stahelski, “Social Interaction Basis of Cooperators’ and Competitors’ Beliefs About Others,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 16 (1970), pp. 66-91; James K. Esser and S. S. Komorita, “Reciprocity and Concession Making in Bargaining,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 31, No. 5 (1975), pp. 864-872.
249 you end up making a deal: Donald J. Trump, The Art of the Deal (New York: Random House, 1987), p. 88.
250 (TKI), which I recommended in the first edition: R. H. Kilmann and K. W. Thomas, “Developing a Forced-Choice Measure of Conflict-Handling Behavior : The ‘Mode’ Instrument,” Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol. 37 (1977), pp. 309-325. There is some doubt about the construct validity of the TKI. See M. A. Konovsky, F. Jaster, and M. A. McDonald, “Using Parametric Statistics to Explore the Construct Validity of the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument,” Management Communication Quarterly, Vol. 3, No. 2 (1989), pp. 268-290; B. Kabanoff, “Predictive Validity of the MODE Conflict Instrument,” Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 72, No. 1 (1987), pp. 160-163. These concerns may also apply to the Bargaining Styles Assessment Tool, on which no research has been conducted to assess validity.
250 Blake and Mouton in the mid-1960s: R. R. Blake and J. S. Mouton, The Managerial Grid (Houston: Gulf Publications, 1964).
Selected Bibliography
Alston, Jon P. The Intelligent Businessman’s Guide to Japan. New York: Charles E. Tuttle, 1990.
Axelrod, Robert. The Evolution of Cooperation. New York: Basic Books, 1984.
Babcock, Linda, and Sara Laschever. Women Don’t Ask: Negotiation and the Gender Divide. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2003.
Bazerman, Max. Judgement in Managerial Decision-Making, 4th ed. New York : John Wiley & Sons, 1998.
———, and Margaret A. Neale. Negotiating Rationally. New York: Free Press, 1992.
Blau, Peter M. Exchange and Power in Social Life. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964.
Bok, Sissela. Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life. New York: Vintage, 1978.
Byrne, D. The Attraction Paradigm. New York: Academic Press, 1971.
Carnegie, Dale. How to Win Friends and Influence People, rev. ed. New York : Pocket Books, 1981.
Cialdini, Robert B. Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion. New York: William Morrow, 1984.
Cohen, Herb. You Can Negotiate Anything. New York: Lyle Stuart, 1980.
Cross, John G. The Economics of Bargaining. New York: Basic Books, 1969.
Dawson, Roger. Roger Dawson’s Secrets of Power Negotiating. Hawthorne, N.J.: Career Press, 1995.
Douglas, Ann. Industrial Peacemaking. New York: Columbia University Press, 1962.
Fisher, Roger, and Daniel Shapiro. Beyond Reason: Using Emotions When You Negotiate. New York: Viking, 2006.
Fisher, Roger, and Scott Brown. Getting Together: Building a Relationship That Gets to Yes. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1988.
Fisher, Roger, William Ury, and Bruce Patton. Getting to Yes, 2d. ed. New York: Penguin, 1991.
Frank, Robert H. Passions Within Reason. New York: Norton, 1988.
Freund, James C. Anatomy of a Merger. New York: Academic Press, 1975.
———. The Acquisition Mating Dance. Clifton, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1987.
———. Smart Negotiating. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.
Gardner, Howard. Leading Minds: An Anatomy of Leadership. New York: Basic Books, 1995.
Gulliver, P. H. Disputes and Negotiations: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. New York: Academic Press, 1979.
Jones, Edward E., and C. Wortman. Ingratiation: An Attributional Approach. Morristown, N.J.: General Learning Press, 1973.
Karrass, Chester L. The Negotiating Game, rev. ed. New York : HarperBusiness, 1992.
Kennedy, Gavin, John Benson, and John McMillian. Managing Negotiations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1982.
Kolb, Deborah, and Judith Williams. Everyday Negotiations: Navigating the Hidden Agendas in Bargaining. New York: Jossey-Bass, 2003.
Kramer, Roderick M., and David M. Messick. Negotiation as a Social Process. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications, 1995.
Kramer, Roderick M., and Tom R. Tyler. Trust in Organizations: Frontiers of Theory and Research. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications, 1996.
Lax, David A., and James K. Sebenius. The Manager as Negotiator: Bargaining for Cooperation and Competitive Gain. New York: The Free Press, 1986.
Lewicki, Roy J., et al. Negotiation, 2d. ed. Burr Ridge, Ill.: Ir win, 1994.
Locke, E., and G. Latham. A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1990.
McCormack, Mark H. On Negotiating. Los Angeles: Dove Books, 1995.
March, Robert M. The Japanese Negotiator: Subtlety and Strategy Beyond Western Logic. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1989.
Menkel-Meadow, Carrie, and Michael Wheeler eds. What’s Fair: Ethics for Negotiators. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004.
Miller, Abraham H. Terrorism and Hostage Negotiations. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1980.
Mnookin, Robert, Lawrence Susskind, and Pacey C. Foster. Negotiating on Behalf of Others. Whitehall, N.J.: Sage, 1999.
Mnookin, Robert, Scott Peppet, and Andrew S. Tulumello. Beyond Winning: Negotiating to Create Value in Deals and Disputes. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer
sity Press, 2004.
Morley, Ian, and Geoffrey Stephenson. The Social Psychology of Bargaining. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1977.
Murnighan, J. Keith. The Dynamics of Bargaining Games. Englewood Cliffs, N.J,: Prentice-Hall, 1991.
Neale, Margaret, and Max Bazerman. Cognition and Rationality in Negotiation. New York: The Free Press, 1991.
Newcomb, T. M. The Acquaintance Process. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1961.
Nierenberg, Gerard I. Fundamentals of Negotiating. New York: Hawthorn/Dutton, 1973.
Nixon, Peter. Mastering Business in Asia: Negotiation. New York: Wiley, 2005.
Osgood, Charles E. An Alternative to War or Surrender. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1962.
Pruitt, Dean. Negotiation Behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1981.
———, and Jeffrey Z. Rubin. Social Conflict: Escalation, Stalemate, and Settlement. New York: Random House, 1986.
Rahim, M. Afzalur, ed. Theory and Research in Conflict Management. New York: Praeger, 1990.
Raiffa, Howard. The Art and Science of Negotiation. Boston: Harvard University Press, 1982.
Rosenberg, Morris. Conceiving the Self. New York: Basic Books, 1979.
Roth, Alvin E., ed. Game-Theoretic Models of Behavior. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Rubin, Jeffrey Z., and B. R. Brown. The Psychology of Bargaining and Negotiation. New York: Academic Press, 1975.
Schelling, Thomas C. The Strategy of Conflict. London: Oxford University Press, 1960.
Schuster, Camille P., and Michael J. Copeland. Global Business: Planning for Sales and Negotiations. Fort Worth, Tex.: The Dryden Press, HarcourtBrace College, 1996.
Shapiro, Ronald, and Mark Jankowski. The Power of Nice. New York: Wiley, 2001.
———. Bullies, Tyrants, and Impossible People: How to Beat Them without Joining Them. New York: Crown Business, 2005.
Singer, Linda. Settling Disputes : Conflict Resolution in Business, Families, and the Legal System. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990.
Stark, Peter B. It’s Negotiable. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Pfeiffer & Company, 1994.
Susskind, Lawrence, and Jeffrey Cruikshank. Breaking the Impasse: Consensual Approaches to Resolving Public Disputes. New York: Basic Books, 1987.
Thaler, Richard H. The Winner’s Curse: Paradoxes and Anomalies of Economic Life. New York: The Free Press, 1992.
Thompson, Leigh. The Mind and Heart of the Negotiator. Upper Saddle River, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1998.
———. Negotiation (Frontiers of Social Psychology). New York: Taylor & Francis, 2005.
Trump, Donald J. The Art of the Deal. New York: Random House, 1987.
Ury, William. Getting Past No. New York: Bantam, 1991.
Walton, Richard E., and Robert B. McKersie. A Behavioral Theory of Labor Negotiations. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965.
Wenke, Robert A. The Art of Negotiation for Lawyers. New York: Law Distributors, 1985.
Williams, Gerald R. Legal Negotiation and Settlement. St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing, 1983.
Woolf, Bob. Friendly Persuasion: How to Negotiate and Win. New York: Berkley Books, 1990.
Zartman, I. William. The Negotiation Process: Theories and Application. Beverly Hills, Calif.: SAGE Publications, 1978.
For Further Information
WHARTON EXECUTIVE NEGOTIATION WORKSHOP: Bargaining for AdvantageThe Wharton School
255 South 38th Street, Suite 202
Philadelphia, PA 19104-6359
(800) 255-3932 (U.S. and Canada)
(215) 898-1776 (worldwide)
(215) 898-2064 (fax)
[email protected] (e-mail)
http://executiveeducation.wharton.upenn.edu (World Wide Web)
Index
ABC
accommodating style of bargaining
accommodation
accountability
agents
aggressive opening moves
agreement, social pressure for
agribusiness firms
Airbus
Air Florida
Alden, John W.
Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (Carroll)
alternative, as fallback
Anacharsis
anchor and adjustment effect
Arab-Israeli conflicts
Art of the Deal, The (Trump)
Arusha people
Ashforth Warburg Associates
assertiveness
assessment
Atkins, Peter
attitude
audiences
authority
Autobiography (Franklin)
automobile dealers
avoidance
avoiding style of bargaining
Babcock, Linda
Bacon, Sir Francis
Balanced Concerns:
and closing
and competition
and concessions
in mergers and acquisitions
and needs
optimistic openings in
in Situational Matrix
Barbarians at the Gate (Burrough and Helyar)
bargaining:
ethics in, see ethics
first to open
as a game
hard-line strategy in
“if . . . then” formula in
information-based
institutionalized standards of
integrative
in negotiation process
no expectation of
overcommitment to
package
slogans and themes in
for someone else
tactical questions in
bargaining style
accommodating
analysis of
assessment tool
and attitudes
avoiding style
collaborating
competing
compromising
cooperative vs. competitive
cultural issues in
effectiveness in
five strategies for
gender differences in
imbalance in
and negotiation, see negotiation
questions about
“talk to the mountain,”
traits of
Bargaining Style Assessment Tool
accommodating style
avoiding style
changing scores in
collaborating style
competing style
compromising style
further analysis of
midrange scores in
optimal score in
overlapping styles
and perception
questions about
Thomas-Kilmann instrument vs.
Barry (relationships)
Barton, R. F.
baseball strike
BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement)
Bazerman, Max
Beatles
beef prices, and ranchers
Begin, Menachem
beliefs
Berrard, Steven
Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA)
Betamax
bid rigging
blocking techniques
bluffing
B’nai B’rith
Boeing Aircraft
Bogart, Neil
Borman, Frank
Borovoy, Roger
bottom line, goals vs.
British labor negotiations
Bulova Corporation
Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railroad
Business as a Game (Carr)
business mergers
Candid Camera (TV)
Capone, Al
car dealers
Carlisle, John
Carnegie, Andrew
Carr, Albert Z.
Carroll, Lewis
Casablanca Records
cattle ranchers, and beef prices
causation and damages
CBS
Chajet, Bonnie
Chandler, Raymond
China, guanxi in
Cialdini, Robert
clarity
closing
and commitment
negotiations broken down in
postsettlement settlement in
scarcity effect in
splitting the difference in
urgency in
CNN
coalitions
Cohen, Herb
Coking, Vera
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor
collaborating style of bargaining
collaboration
Columbia Pictures
commitment:
accountability in
and closing
and effectiveness
escalation of
four degrees of
to goals
in negotiation process
overcommitment
passionate
public announcement of
to reciprocity norms
simultaneous exchange in
social ritual of
strategy of
written agreement
communication:
agent used for
direct
electronic
by e-mail
eye contact in
in negotiation
personality in
preparation for
rapport in
skills in
of ultimatums
competing style of bargaining
competition
and Balanced Concerns
and compromise
conflicting needs in
cooperation vs.
and effectiveness
escalation of commitment in
and ethics
pressure of
scarcity effect in
strangers in
compromise
compromising style of bargaining
concession devaluation
concessions
in Balanced Concern situations
in competitive situations
good guy/bad guy routine in
“if . . . then” formula in
as language of cooperation
messages implied in
and relationships
and Situational Matrix
splitting the difference
starting high in
strategies
tactical bargaining questions
Bargaining for Advantage Page 35