by Guy Warner
Over the winter of 1908, Colonel Capper and the team at Farnborough had built another non-rigid airship, Dirigible No 2, which made its first appearance in the late spring of 1909 and was unofficially christened Baby. The envelope was fish-shaped, or pisiform,46 to lessen wind resistance as compared to Dirigible No 1 and was made of goldbeater’s skin; she was 84 feet (25 metres) in length and had a diameter of 24 feet (7 metres), with a volume of 21,000 cubic feet (5943 cubic metres). Capper had liaised with the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington with the testing of ebony models of possible envelope shapes in the air channel or wind-tunnel located there, having been told by the Wright brothers of the utility of such a device. One ballonet was contained inside the envelope which, to begin with, had three inflated fins to act as stabilizers. These proved unsatisfactory as they were lacking in rigidity, and were replaced after the first inflation by the ordinary, non-inflatable fixed planes. Two 10 hp (7.4 kW), 3-cylinder Buchet engines were mounted in a long car driving a single propeller, and, at a later date, these were replaced by a 25 hp (18.5 kW) REP radial engine, which was not a great improvement. Finally, a 35 hp engine (25 kW) designed by Gustavus Green was installed. Green (1865–1964) was the first successful aero-engine designer in Great Britain. Over a period of seven months, from 11 May to 10 December 1908, Baby made thirteen fairly short flights with this variety of engines and control surface configurations. This could charitably be described as a development programme based on the trial and error method. She proved to be very unstable and rather slow, barely reaching 20mph (32kph); a complete redesign was required. During the autumn, permission was obtained to enlarge the envelope and fit a more powerful engine.
Baby in May 1909.
Further Official Interest
The establishment of the Advisory Committee on Aeronautics in 1909 was a major step forward, though it had taken all of three years to come to fruition. Early in 1906 a proposal had been made by Colonel J.D. Fullerton, RE, supported by Colonel Templer, for the appointment of a committee consisting of military officers, aeronauts, mechanical engineers and naval representatives to harness the available expertise to investigate all technical matters aeronautical in a structured and scientific fashion. A modified form of this idea was put forward some three years later by R.B. Haldane, the Secretary of State for War. He was particularly keen to involve the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington and thereby, hopefully, bring the best scientific talent to bear upon the study of flight, and give the government direct control of aeronautical research and experiment. (The laboratory was founded in 1900 to carry out scientific tests for theoretical purposes and also for the benefit of British industry, in imitation of, and in somewhat belated response to, the Physikalisch Technichse Reichsanstalt, which had been established in Berlin since 1887. It represented a significant move away from the Victorian laissez faire attitude, which held that industrial activities should be the exclusive pursuit of private enterprise.) A conference was held in the room of the First Lord of the Admiralty and its deliberations were approved by the Prime Minister, Herbert Henry Asquith. The Advisory Committee for Aeronautics was set up with ten members, seven of whom were Fellows of the Royal Society. The President was Lord Rayleigh, OM, FRS and the Chairman, Dr R.T. Glazebrook, FRS, the Director of the National Physical Laboratory. [Lord Rayleigh (1842–1919) was a Nobel Laureate in 1904 and had a worldwide reputation as one of the foremost mathematical and experimental physicists of his day.] The army was represented by Major General Sir Charles Hadden, the navy by Captain R.H.S. Bacon, and the Meteorological Office by Dr W.N. Shaw. Soon, two others were added, Mervyn O’Gorman, when he took over the charge of the Balloon Factory, and ‘the brilliant but unorthodox’,47 ‘difficult and temperamental’,48 Captain Murray Sueter, RN.
Captain Murray Sueter in 1915. (Via Peter Wright)
[Author’s note: Sueter was born in 1872 and, as a junior officer, showed indications of an original mind, and a considerable inventive genius in the new fields of torpedoes, submarines and wireless telegraphy. As the first Director of the Admiralty’s Air Department from 1912 to 1916, he was a tireless advocate of air power and succeeded in annoying many influential senior officers. He was effectively exiled to command in Southern Italy and, following an ill-advised letter to the King in 1917, his active naval career was cut short. After the war, when neither the Admiralty nor the Air Department was prepared to offer a position to this talented maverick, he became a Member of Parliament and a thorn in the side of the establishment. He was, however, knighted in 1934 and lived to a ripe old age, dying in 1960.]
From that time on the National Physical Laboratory worked in very close cooperation with the Balloon Factory. Some of the topics considered, investigated and experimented upon included – air resistance, stresses and strains on materials, means of protecting airships from electrical discharges, the best shape for the wing of an aeroplane and the best fabric for the envelope of an airship. Colonel Capper was a significant omission; despite his obvious knowledge and enthusiasm, he was too outspoken and irascible, and had not impressed Haldane, who considered that he was a clever empiricist but was not the man to build up an Air Service as he envisaged it, on a foundation of science.49
The government’s view of the role of the committee was expressed in the House of Commons. On 20 May 1909, Arthur Balfour asked the Prime Minister about the new committee. Mr Asquith replied:
‘It is not part of the general duty of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics either to construct or invent. Its function is not to initiate but to consider what is initiated elsewhere, and is referred to it by the executive officers of the navy and army construction departments. The problems which are likely to arise… for solutions are numerous, and it will be the work of the committee to advise on these problems, and to seek their solution by the application of both theoretical and experimental methods of research.’50
The Advisory Committee visited Farnborough on 5 July 1909. No records of what was discussed have survived, but at least early contact was made. It may be considered a weakness that the Advisory Committee was heavily biased towards theoretical knowledge. Where were the industrialists, the engineers, the aviators, who could have assisted with the application of the theory to reality, perhaps by using some of the empiricism so disregarded by Haldane? Writing after the First World War, the official historian approved of Haldane’s methods:
‘These and scores of other problems were systematically and patiently attacked. There were no theatrically quick results, but the work done laid a firm and broad base for all subsequent success. Hasty popular criticism is apt to measure the value of scientific advice by the tale of things done, and to overlook the credit that belongs to it for things prevented. The science of aeronautics in the year 1909 was in a very difficult and uncertain stage of its early development; any mistakes in laying the foundations of a national air force would not only have involved the nation in much useless expense, but would have imperilled the whole structure.’51
Enter Mervyn O’Gorman
In October 1909, the Balloon Factory and Balloon School at South Farnborough, which had been under one control, were separated, with Capper as commandant of the school. The superintendent of the factory appointed, on a salary of £950 a year, was Mervyn Joseph Pius O’Gorman, who became universally known as O’G:
‘A witty Irishman of flamboyant courage and imagination who had already attained eminence as an authority on suction gas engines, and was consultant engineer in the firm of Swinburne, O’Gorman, and Baillie. Sporting a goldrimmed monocle, fiercely brushed-up moustache, long cigarette holder, and immaculate dress, he was, at thirty-eight, a man of brilliant and strong character, he made warm friends as readily as bitter enemies; a thruster with a penetrating outlook founded on degrees in Classics and Science at University College, Dublin, and a post-graduate honours course in electrical engineering at the City and Guilds Institute of London University – yet withal, an artist.’52
Mervyn O’Gorman.
The selection of O’Gorman fitted perfectly with the desire of R.B. Haldane, as expressed in Parliament, to appoint a, ‘practical man, a civilian and an engineer’53 and had been made on the recommendation of Lord Rayleigh. It was believed that he was better suited than Capper to work closely with the scientists serving on the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and also at the National Physical Laboratory. It was also thought that as a civil servant he would be free of the malign influence which senior military and naval officers, opposed to aviation in any shape or form, could (and did) exert on colonels and captains. Flight Magazine welcomed the appointment:
‘Important changes have, as our readers are aware, taken place in connection with the control of the various departments associated with military aeronautics, the outstanding departure having been the appointment of a civilian, Mr Mervyn O’Gorman – a well-known consulting engineer and automobile expert – to the post of superintendent of the Military Balloon Factory. Hitherto, Colonel Capper succeeded, out of his indomitable energy, in looking after this large and important work in addition to his proper duties as commandant of the Military Balloon School, which in wartime provides the balloon companies that are attached to the fighting forces. How one man could ever be expected to run a factory, design dirigibles, aeroplanes, and other such machines, in addition to instructing soldiers in the art of aerial warfare, is somewhat of a mystery, but Colonel Capper made an attempt that has gone a long way towards laying the foundation of what we hope will in time develop into the finest military equipment in the world. Now that the two departments have been separated, each should progress apace; it is, as we have mentioned, only necessary to look from the roadside to see that developments have already taken place since Mr Mervyn O’Gorman’s accession to the office of superintendent of the factory.’54
There is no doubt that ‘O’G’ was one of the most important figures in the development of aviation in Britain, and set it on a path of sound science and engineering. Not only was he talented himself and filled with an abounding energy, he had the gift for choosing good subordinates and gaining their loyalty. One of the most successful of his recruitments was F.M. Green, who became chief engineer in January 1910.
The Royal Navy’s First Airship
Meanwhile, in February 1909, the Committee of Imperial Defence had recommended that £35,000 should be spent on a rigid airship project for the Royal Navy in order to ascertain what its full potential might be; as had been done a few years before in respect of experimental submarines, while the army should concentrate on non-rigid airships for which £10,000 was allocated, and that the development of aeroplanes should be left in the hands of private enterprise.55 This was a triumph for Captain Bacon, who had been under the direct instructions of the First Sea Lord, Admiral Sir John Fisher, whose aim had been to secure this funding. It also represented a degree of success for General Nicholson, as some of the impetus for army aviation was kicked into the long grass. Haldane would bide his time. The naval airship order was announced in parliament by Reginald McKenna, the First Lord of the Admiralty, in March 1909:
‘The question of the use of dirigible airships for naval purposes has been under consideration for some time and it has been decided to carry out experiments and construct an aerial vessel.’56
It was noted in the report of the Committee of Imperial Defence that captive balloons and, to a lesser extent, kites, had for many years formed a part of the regular equipment of all modern armies. Great progress with regard to dirigible balloons, particularly in France and Germany in recent years, was remarked upon. With regard to the future use of dirigibles in naval warfare, reliability; ease of mooring; endurance; speed relative to surface vessels; sufficient crew accommodation to allow relief personnel to be carried; a wireless telegraphy set and navigational facilities, were considered as essential. It was added that accurate sights had been obtained by officers at Barrow, using a German bubble artificial horizon device fitted to an aeronautical sextant. The principal use was advocated as scouting and fleet protection at a much lower unit cost than a 3rd Class cruiser or a destroyer. The utility of an airship for dropping explosive devices was considered as unproven. The future use of fixed-wing aeroplanes was also thought to be unproven, particularly with regard to mechanical reliability, carrying capacity, the ability to operate at height and to fly in unfavourable weather. It was also thought that the endurance of aeroplanes would be affected by the physical strain on the ‘driver’. Future combat between airships and aeroplanes was also considered, it being decided that there was no concrete proof at this point as to which would prevail.57
On 7 May a tender from Vickers was accepted.
A construction shed was built at Cavendish Dock, Barrow-in-Furness, and it was agreed that the design would be by a consortium of naval officers and Vickers engineers. It must have seemed a very promising career path to Neville Usborne, being taken out of the midst of his generation of officers to take part in a project supported by the First Sea Lord. As well as Murray Sueter, who was in command, and Usborne, the third member of the naval team in the early days was Chief Artificer Engineer A. Sharpe, RN. They were joined later by Commander Oliver Schwann, RN, as Assistant Inspecting Captain of Airships, Lieutenant C.P. Talbot, RN, and Engineer-Lieutenant C.R.J. Randall, RN. The Vickers technical team was controlled by Charles G. Robertson, the Marine Manager at Barrow, who had no prior, ‘experience of aeronautics, nor of the light structural work involved’.58 One of his senior assistants was the mathematician, H.B. Pratt, who calculated the airship in its final configuration was not strong enough to bear the load that would be imposed on it; his advice was ignored. There was little technical knowledge available; therefore construction was very much on trial and error lines. It was a highly ambitious project, with a length of 512 feet (155 metres) and a beam of 48 feet (15 metres); it was as large as any of the Zeppelins constructed so far. Its frame was made of forty transverse twelvesided rings, each connected by twelve longitudinals. Beneath the frame was a triangular keel with an amidships cabin. Inside the framework were seventeen gasbags filled with hydrogen and which had a total gas capacity of 700,000 cubic feet (19,810 cubic metres), each had two valves (of Parseval design) at the top, one automatic, the other manual. They were manufactured by Short Brothers of rubberised fabric imported from Germany. The framework was to be fabricated from an entirely new and untried aluminium alloy, Duralumin, which offered the strength of steel at one third of the weight, and which had been developed in Germany and introduced only very recently. Vickers had considerable difficulty in working it. Originally, the internal bracing wires were also made from Duralumin, but repeated breakages during construction meant they had to be replaced with steel. The silk outer skin, which was waterproofed using an aluminium-based dope, was silver grey on the upper half and yellow below; in order to make the topside as far as possible a non-conductor of heat and so minimise the effect of the sun’s rays on the expansion of the gas, while encouraging the conduction of heat underneath to facilitate the equalisation of temperature between the gas and the surrounding atmosphere. Streamlining was employed with the main body being cylindrical, tapering towards the somewhat blunter nose and tail. Four stabilising fins (two vertical and two horizontal), two sets of quadruplane rudders and two sets of triplane elevators were mounted at the stern. The control surfaces were not hinged, but used Short’s Reversible Patent Aerocurve, which flexed. There was a further elevator under the bows and another rudder to the rear of the aftermost of the two underslung cars, made from mahogany sewn with copper wire and which were connected by a gangway. The original idea was for a long-range scouting and gunnery direction platform to assist the main battle fleet, equipped with wireless telegraphy (WT) which was as much in its infancy as aviation. There was some discussion concerning the possibility of arming the airship with ‘locomotive torpedoes.’59 From an early date, officers of the Royal Navy had been interested in the possibility of using aircraft to deliver torpedoes. This was recorded i
n Air Publication 1344, History of the Development of Torpedo Aircraft:
‘In the early part of 1911 many discussions concerning the use of torpedo aircraft took place amongst our Naval Officers, Captain Murray Sueter, RN, Lieutenant N.F. Usborne, RN, Lieutenant Hyde-Thomson, and Lieutenant L’Estrange Malone, RN, were amongst those who were particularly interested in this subject. It will be remembered that at that time aircraft were entirely in their infancy; they could hardly carry a passenger, and the idea of carrying a large weight was almost incomprehensible; their use as a weapon was only vaguely discernible. The rigid airship Mayfly was at this time being constructed at Barrow, and the naval officers under Captain Sueter, RN, employed on this work, frequently discussed the prospects of torpedo aircraft. The possibilities were vividly represented by the late Commander N.F. Usborne, RN.’60
HMA No 1 under construction at Barrow.
Captain Murray Sueter, who was described subsequently as, ‘a brave new warrior of the machine age who had gone, with enthusiasm, from working on submarines and torpedoes, to flying machines and motor vehicles,’61 was appointed Inspecting Captain of Airships, to oversee the design and production of the airship, and so assembled a team of technically minded and promising officers.
The aviation press reported on 30 July 1910:
‘Secrecy at Barrow. EXTRAORDINARY care is being taken at Barrow-in-Furness to ensure that no details with regard to the big naval dirigible under construction there shall leak out. The shed is closely guarded by Marines and only those employed on the work are allowed to enter. It is said that recently a man was found inside the barricade, and, on being taken to the police court, was sentenced to two months imprisonment, although it was not suggested that he was a spy.’62