by Sivadasa
About a couple of names that might puzzle you: The sinsipa tree, which is almost a character in the book, is what we know today as the sturdy sheesham, used for good-quality furniture. The bilva fruit is none other than the bel, the healthy summer fruit, sacred to Lord Shiva. There is a glossary provided at the end, which should help you better understand some of the other terms used in the book.
* * *
I must say I like the way the book ends. King Vikram asks the gods for a boon—that these unique tales continue to be popular down the ages. And interestingly enough, that is exactly what has happened. I think it is because of the extraordinary scenarios they paint, the high level of fantasy and the tricky moral questions they raise. So, revel in the world of these stories that are like no other, and enjoy puzzling over the vetal’s riddles!
July 2016
Deepa Agarwal
Author, poet and translator, Deepa Agarwal writes for both children and adults and has over fifty books published. A frequent contributor to magazines and journals in India and abroad, she has edited and compiled several anthologies. She has won many prestigious awards, including the NCERT National Award for Children’s Literature in 1993. Her book Caravan to Tibet was on the IBBY (International Board on Books for Young People) Honour List 2008.
Her work has been translated into several Indian and foreign languages, and five of her books have been included in the White Raven catalogue of the International Youth Library, Munich.
As a resource person for Scholastic India and the National Book Trust, India, among other organizations, she conducts creative-writing workshops and storytelling sessions in schools.
PUFFIN CLASSICS
Listen, O King!
Five-and-Twenty Tales of Vikram and the Vetal
With Puffin Classics, the story isn’t over when you reach the final page. Want to discover more about the author and his world? Read on . . .
CONTENTS
AUTHOR FILE
THE INDIA PAGES
SOME THINGS TO THINK ABOUT
GLOSSARY
AUTHOR FILE
Who was Sivadasa?
Nothing is known about Sivadasa, other than the fact that this particular work dates back to the twelfth or thirteenth century. In fact, Sivadasa could even be a pen name. Chandra Rajan, who translated his version of the Vikram–vetal tales from Sanskrit into English, has noted that clues to his personality can be found in his writing. His stories reveal that Sivadasa must have been a learned man, who possessed knowledge in fields as varied as astrology, medicine, the dramatic arts and religion. His readers would most likely have been cultured and sophisticated gentlemen, with an interest in the arts. And since we know education was restricted to the privileged few, they had to be wealthy and well placed too. He must have also been a man who had a clear idea of right and wrong, which is why there is a great stress on moral values in these tales.
THE INDIA PAGES
The Ideal Indian Ruler
In ancient India, a king was regarded as the maker of his age—the title of an ‘ideal ruler’ was reserved for one who was not only brave and strong but also wise and just. Stories of kings being subjected to tests by gods and holy figures abound. The one who passed these trials was considered to be truly great as he proved himself to be a righteous and benevolent ruler who placed his subjects before himself.
King Vikramaditya, who is one of the central characters in the Vikram–vetal tales, is widely regarded as the ideal ruler in Indian lore.
Who was King Vikramaditya?
Does King Vikramaditya exist only in legend? There are many theories about the identity of this legendary ruler that prove otherwise. Sivadasa states that he was the king of Pratishthanpura, a city on the banks of the Godavari. Pratishthanpura is the ancient name of modern-day Paithan, known for its beautiful silk saris. However, in some versions, the city of Ujjaini is mentioned as Vikramaditya’s capital. If he did indeed rule from Ujjaini, he should be the same ruler who reigned in the Malwa region in central India, vanquished the Sakas and founded the Vikrami era, which predates the Christian era by fifty-six years. This King Vikram has left an indelible impression in Indian legend as an outstanding ruler. There are some who even argue that the fabled monarch was actually Chandragupta Vikramaditya of the legendary Gupta dynasty. One way or another, the noble hero of the Vetala Panchavimshati and the Simhasana Dvatrimsika (thirty-two tales of the lion-throne) is enshrined in story and our imaginations as the ideal Indian ruler.
Which is the other collection of King Vikramaditya stories?
The Simhasana Dvatrimsika, known as the Singhasan Battisi in Hindi, is another set of fascinating tales featuring King Vikram and the vetal. These stories are told by thirty-two statuettes, to another celebrated ruler—Raja Bhoja of Malwa. According to the story, Raja Bhoja learns that an ignorant cowherd is transformed into the best of judges and resolves disputes whenever he sits upon a mound, which is located on the outskirts of his capital, Ujjain. Astonished, the king has the mound excavated, unearthing a magnificent throne buried beneath the surface. He prepares to ascend it with great ceremony. But at every attempt, he is stopped by one of the thirty-two statuettes at its base. Each statuette tells him that only those who have proven themselves to be worthy of the throne can lay claim to its glory. One by one, they tell him a story about the king who had occupied it—Vikramaditya. Unlike the vetal’s tales that end with a characteristic riddle, these stories do not follow a specific pattern. The Singhasan stories expound the virtues of valour, ethics and the fulfilment of a king’s duties towards his subjects. They project an exemplary ruler—Vikramaditya—who has taken a vow, guaranteeing the happiness of his subjects, and goes to great lengths to fulfil it. While discharging his duties, the king has many exciting adventures. In the Singhasan Battisi, the vetal is shown to be a powerful demon controlled by the king, who helps him to fulfil his vow using his supernatural powers.
Ancient history has a rich tradition of exemplary rulers. Ashoka, ruler of the Mauryas, established himself as a Chakravartin and became a proponent of tolerance and non-violence. Such rulers emerge not only in Indian history but in the history of other countries as well—find out what stories have been written about them!
Solah Sringar
The woman in the first story adorns herself in the ‘solah sringar’ to distract the sage and earn a reward from King Gandharvasena. The term describes the sixteen forms of make-up and jewellery that are traditionally associated with the beautification of a Hindu bride. Some of these ornaments continue to be used as a mark of a married woman. The items may vary according to local custom.
Silk garments decorated with gold embroidery. Can be a lehnga-choli and odhani, sari or salwar kameez, according to the community.
Perfume
Keshapasharachana. An elaborate ornament used to decorate a braid or a bun, fashioned out of either flowers or gold set with precious stones.
Maang teeka. An ornament that consists of a chain that runs through the parting of the hair, or ‘maang’, and ends with a pendant that hangs above the forehead.
Sindoor. A vermillion powder, it is sprinkled on the hair parting of a bride by the groom as an important part of the wedding ceremony. It is only worn by married women.
Bindi. The red dot placed in the middle of the forehead, traditionally part of a married woman’s essential make-up.
Kaajal. Black paste used to outline the eyes and make them look larger.
Nose ring
Earrings
Necklace
Bajuband. Jewelled bands worn on the upper arm.
Bangles
Hathphool. An ornament for the hand, usually jewelled gold chains, which are delicately attached to rings and a bracelet.
Tagdi. A gold or silver belt, sometimes set with precious stones.
Anklets
Toe rings
Another Popular Sanskrit Classic
The Panchatantra
The Panchatantra is attributed to Vishnu S
harma, a learned Brahmin, and is said to have been written for the benefit of three dull princes. The story goes that the king of Mahilaropya (Mylapore in South India or Pataliputra in Bihar, as in another retelling) had three sons, who lacked both knowledge and virtue. Troubled, the king summoned learned Brahmins to instruct them in the art of living wisely and well. Vishnu Sharma took up the challenge and, engaging the princes’ attention with riveting tales, infused them with curiosity and a vivid sense of imagination, thus transforming them.
The word Panchatantra means ‘five books’ and is a work of niti, and uses allegories to impart life lessons. It is a collection of stories that are believed to have been written more than two thousand years ago. The Panchatantra is considered to be the earliest example of children’s literature. The vitality of its prose and verse continues to attract both children and young adults today.
There are numerous versions of these stories within India itself. And the fact that these tales have travelled far and wide, and are part of the folklore of many countries, demonstrates their universality. It is believed that there are 200 versions of these stories that live and breathe in close to sixty languages. While it is hard to put a date to when this collection of stories was written, it is commonly supposed that they belong to the third century BCE.
Supernatural Beings in Indian Mythology and Folklore
Vetals
A vetal is said to be a spirit that usually haunts cremation grounds and inhabits corpses. Such corpses do not decay since a vetal assumes command of it. These bodies, no longer bereft of a soul, can move and express themselves freely. If you remember, the body jumped up when King Vikram tried to pick it up and flew away at the end of each story. The vetal had the freedom to leave the body whenever it wanted. A vetal also has supernatural powers. Like most supernatural creatures in the folk tradition, a vetal can be tamed by performing certain rituals. This is what the sadhu Kshantisila was trying to achieve in the book. In that sense, the vetal is similar to a genie, or djinn, who traditionally serves human masters.
Pishachas
Pishachas are flesh-eating demons, sometimes believed to have been created by Brahma. One legend describes them as sons of the rishi Kashyapa and Krodhavasa, one of the daughters of King Daksha. They are depicted as menacing creatures with a dark complexion, bulging veins and protruding red eyes. Pishachas can communicate in their own language, Paishachi, which humans cannot decipher. They like the dark and lurk around in cremation grounds, along with other monsters like bhutas and vetals. It is believed that they can transcend the limitations of physical appearance and change form at will, even becoming invisible at times. It is also thought that they can possess human beings and dictate their thoughts to the extent where the afflicted suffered a gradual descent into sickness or insanity. In order to placate these demons, people made them offerings during certain religious ceremonies and festivals.
Rakshasas
Rakshasas were supposed to have been created from Brahma’s breath when he fell into a deep sleep at the end of the Satya Yuga. As soon as they were born, they began to devour the god himself. When Brahma shouted ‘Rakshama!’ (Sanskrit for ‘protect me!’), Vishnu rushed to save him and expelled the demons to earth. Coincidentally, they were named after Brahma’s cry for help—from ‘rakshama’ came ‘rakshasa’. In the Rig Veda they are classified amongst the yatudhanas, fiendish creatures that devour humans. Rakshasas are usually shown as ugly, enormous creatures with two fangs protruding from their mouths, and fingernails that are more like claws. Like other demons created by Brahma, they have flaming-red eyes and hair, and drink blood. They, too, can fly, vanish, and have the power to transform into any creature they wished. Ravana and his cohorts are the most famous rakshasas in Hindu mythology.
Daityas
Daityas are giants, the offspring of the sage Kashyapa and Prajapati Daksha’s daughter Diti. Danavas are giants as well and were the children of another daughter Danu, also married to Kashyapa. Both daityas and danavas had magic powers and rebelled many times against the devas, the gods.
Vidyadharas
Originating in the Hindu and Buddhist texts, vidyadharas (the Sanskrit word means ‘wisdom-holder’) are supernatural beings, said to possess magical powers. They are essentially spirits of the air and fall in the category of Upadevas or demigods. They serve Lord Shiva, and are said to inhabit the Himalayas and other mountainous regions. Masters of esoteric knowledge and sorcery, the vidyadharas are described as kindly and joyous beings that possess the ability to fly in the air and diminish their size. There are many references made to them in the Hindu epics and the Puranas. They are also associated with Lord Indra, the god of rain and thunderstorms, and Kubera, the god of wealth. Classic Sanskrit works, like Kshemendra’s Brihadkathamanjari and Somadeva’s Kathasaritasagara, all include stories in which vidyadharas play important roles.
Yakshas
Yakshas and yakshinis are nature-spirits, associated with mountains and the woods; they are caretakers of the wilderness. Yakshas appear in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts and are supposed to be gentle creatures. Mostly benign, these fairy-like creatures can turn evil, playing nasty tricks on and waylaying lonely travellers. Male yakshas are supposed to be stoutly built and fearsome in appearance. Female yakshas, or yakshinis, however, were mostly beautiful and charming, with a pixie-like gaiety about them. Kubera is the king of the yakshas, besides being the god of wealth. Apart from appearing in the epics and in Puranic tales, a yaksha is the narrator of Kalidasa’s famous work Meghaduta.
SOME THINGS TO THINK ABOUT
The Vikram–vetal stories were written in a far-off time and the original creator must have been a person who thought very differently from the way we do now. How has the creator portrayed the various characters in the stories? What do they reflect about the attitudes during those times? Do you think attitudes have changed?
The various tales found in a culture’s mythology are never restricted to one country or tradition. They are influenced by and overlap each other. A supernatural force like a vetal, thus, does not necessarily exist in Indian myth alone, but could exist in other countries—with a different name as well as in slightly different forms. One such form exists in Tibet. The Tibetan word for a vetal is ‘rolang’, meaning a corpse (ro) that has got up (lang). In the Himalayas, rolangs are regarded as part of everyday life and are seen as a threat. Their folklore (in addition to the scriptures) is rife with stories about them. The vetal, in these regions, too, features in stories similar to the ones we’ve just read. In these Buddhist versions, it is usually the great philosopher Nagarjuna who figures as the equivalent to Vikramaditya. Doesn’t it boggle the mind to think of how many other such versions might exist in the world?
Do you know that the popular Arabian Nights were partly inspired by the tales of Vikram and the vetal? These stories, too, highlight the perils of hasty decisions, of moral misconduct and the importance of making the right choices in life. Aesop’s Fables and the Jataka Tales have similar teachings. What have you learnt from the Five-and-Twenty Tales of Vikram and the Vetal?
GLOSSARY
eight siddhis:
Aṇimā: ability to reduce one’s body even to the size of an atom
Mahima: ability to expand one’s body to an interminably large size
Garima: ability to become infinitely heavy
Laghima: ability to become almost weightless
Prāpti: to have unrestricted access to all places
Prākāmya: to realize everything one desires
Iṣṭva: to possess absolute lordship
Vaśtva: to have the power to subjugate all
Gandharva marriage: One of the eight traditional kinds of Hindu marriages recognized in ancient India. It was based on the mutual attraction between a man and a woman, with no rituals other than an exchange of garlands. Family participation, or even the presence of witnesses, was not required. The marriage of Dushyanta and Shakuntala is a well-known example.
kadali blosso
ms: Variously described as the pinkish-mauve blossoms of a tree native to Kerala; M. malabathrica; a tree with yellow blossoms; banana flowers.
Krishna paksha: The dark lunar fortnight or waning moon in the Hindu calendar. ‘Krishna’ is Sanskrit for ‘dark’. A period of fifteen days, which begins on the full-moon day, or purnima, and ends on the new moon day, or amavasya.
swayamvara: This was the practice of choosing a husband from a gathering of suitors, by a girl of marriageable age. ‘Swayam’ in Sanskrit means ‘self’ and ‘vara’ means ‘bridegroom’.
uttariya: An unstitched garment worn by both men and women to cover the upper part of the body—basically, our modern dupatta; the antariya was the lower dhoti-like garment.
yogini: Women who practise yoga; in the story here, women who take part in the tantric rituals associated with the cremation grounds.
THE BEGINNING
Let the conversation begin…