The Buddhist tradition has had an ambivalent attitude toward kingship. We have already seen225 that the Buddha denied a divine origin to monarchy, seeing it rather as a purely human pragmatic social construct. It was a necessary evil. In the Mahādukkhakkhandha Sutta (MN 13) the Buddha, in describing the perils in attachment to material possessions, lists among the disasters which may befall a property owner that “thieves or kings or nasty relatives” may seize it (MN 13). The Buddha once contemplated whether or not it was possible to rule as a king without committing evil kamma. Significantly, we are not told the answer to that question (SN 4:20).
Among the duties of a king which would entail incurring evil kamma were the waging of war and the dispensation of justice. Justice in ancient India was by all accounts swift and harsh. In the Aṅguttara Nikāya there is a long list of punishments which the king’s men might inflict on a criminal. They might have him flogged with whips or canes, or beaten with clubs. They might cut off his hands, feet, ears or nose. Or they might subject him to various tortures. These are colourfully named and most were no doubt intended to be fatal:
Bilaṅgathālika—“The Porridge Pot.” The top of his skull is opened up and a hot iron ball dropped in to cook his brains.
Saṅkhamuṇḍika—“The Conch-Shell Shave.” They flay the skin off his face and head and pull it off by the hair and then polish the top of his skull by rubbing it with coarse gravel.
Rāhumukha—“Rāhu’s Mouth.” They force his mouth open with a stake and light a lamp inside it.
Jotimālika—“The Fire Garland.” They wrap an oiled cloth all around his body and then set it on fire.
Hatthapajjotika—“The Radiant Hand.” They wrap his hand in an oiled cloth and light it so that it burns like a lamp.
Erakavattika—“The Grass Cripple.” They peel strips of skin from his neck downward and tie them around his ankles, so that he trips and falls on his own skin.
Cīrakavāsika—“The Bark Razor.” They flay the skin off his upper body and let it hang down to his ankles, so that it looks as if he is wearing a bark dress.
Eṇeyyaka—“The Antelope.” His wrists and ankles are bound with iron shackles and he is staked to the ground on all-fours. Then fires are lit all around him and kept burning until he is dead. After he dies, the iron posts are removed and his arm and leg bones driven into the ground. (pour encourager les autres?)
Baḷisamaṃsika—“The Meat-Hook.” His body is beaten all over with a double-pronged hook until the skin, flesh and sinews come apart.
Kahāpaṇika—“The Kahāpana.” (A kahāpana was a middling value coin). With a sharp knife, chunks of flesh the size of a kahāpana piece are cut out of his body.
Khārāpatacchika—“The Lye Rub.” After being beaten, his body is covered in strong lye and rubbed with a brush until all the skin and flesh is removed down to the bones.
Palighaparivattika—“Around the Pole.” He is made to lie down on his side and a stake is driven into his ear all the way through to the ground below. He is then seized by the feet and turned around and around.
Palālapīṭhaka—“The Straw Mattress.” A skilled torturer cuts his skin, breaks his bones and then pulls up a mass of flesh by his hair and twists it into knot like a straw wick.
Or, less imaginatively, they might have him boiled in oil, devoured by dogs, impaled on a stake or simply cut off his head (AN-a 2:1). No one could accuse ancient Indian rulers of being “soft on crime!”
Despite all of this, some element of a cosmic or sacred quality adhered to kingship. Whether or not kings followed the path of Dhamma affected more than their personal kamma, indeed it had cosmic consequences:
When kings (rājā) are righteous (dhammika), then the royal vassals (rājāyutta) are righteous. When the royal vassals are righteous, then the brahmins and householders are righteous. When they are righteous, then the people of the towns and countryside are righteous. When they are righteous, the moon and the sun turn about evenly (samaṃ parivattanti), and because of that, the constellations and stars turn about evenly. Because of that, the days and night turn about evenly. Because of that, the months and fortnights turn about evenly. Because of that, the seasons and years turn about evenly. Because of that, the winds blow evenly and in the proper order. Because of that, the devas do not become agitated. Not being agitated, the devas bestow proper rainfall. With proper rainfall, the crops ripen. With the ripening of the crops, human beings enjoy food and become long-lived, beautiful, strong and without sickness. (AN 4: 70)
Righteousness for a king is defined by the ten rājadhammas:
Dāna—Generosity. The foundation of all ten.
Sīla—Morality, defined as keeping the five precepts.
Pariccāga—Having a charitable nature, defined as freely giving gifts.
Ajjava—Uprightness.
Maddava—Mildness or Gentleness.
Tapa—Religious austerity, defined as keeping the uposatha vows, i.e. keeping the eight precepts on the days of the full and new moon .
Akkodha—Freedom from anger.
Avihiṃsā—Freedom from cruelty.
Khanti—Patience, forbearance.
Avirodhana—Absence of enmity, gentleness. (Jāt 534)
This was obviously an ideal seldom met with in reality. The only monarch contemporary with the Buddha whom he called a “righteous king” (dhammarājā) was Bimbisāra of Magadha (DN 2, DN 18). In the early period of the earth’s history, at the time when human lifespans were of indefinite length, there was a long dynasty of 84,000 dhammarājas beginning with Makhādeva and ending with Nimi, who was taken up by Mātali, the charioteer of the devas, to visit Tāvatiṃsa. Each of these kings spent 84,000 years playing childish games, 84,000 years serving as viceroy, 84,000 years ruling righteously as a dhammarājā, after which they abdicated and spent the remaining 84,000 years of their lives as ascetics living in the forest (MN 83). These kings ruled at Mithilā, which was the capital of Videha (a member of the Vajjian Confederacy), which therefore enjoyed a period of more than 7,000,000 years of beneficent rule.226 In later times, King Asoka became the exemplar of righteous rule for Buddhist monarchs.
3:1:8 THE MAHĀPURISA
This story is told about events shortly after the Bodhisatta Gotama’s birth:
There was, at that time, an ascetic (tāpasa) named Asita227 who was a confidant (kulūpaka) of King Suddhodana. He had mastery of the eight attainments (aṭṭhasamāpattilābhī, i.e. the jhānas of form and the formless). After eating his daily meal he would go to the deva realm of Tāvatiṃsa for the day’s abiding. On one such occasion he happened to see all the devas ecstatically rejoicing:
Full of joy were the company of devas, delighted.
Together with their lord, Sakka.
Dressed all in the purest white, were the devas.
Waving cloth (banners) and making great praise.
This was seen by Asita during his day’s abiding.
Seeing the devas, with joyful hearts, exultant.
Asita having paid his respects, spoke thus;
“Why is the company of devas so exceedingly pleased?
On account of what do you wave cloth with great delight?
“Even when there was battle with the asuras,
And victory for the devas.
There was not such joy in the company of devas.
What wonder have you seen that you wave those cloths so?
“They are shouting, they are singing, they are crying out.
They are waving their hands and dancing about.
I ask you, dwellers on Meru’s peak;
Resolve quickly my curiosity.”
(The devas reply):
“A Bodhisatta, a peerless gem,
Has been born in the human world, for its happiness and well being,
In the Sākya country, in the village of Lumbinī.
It is because of this that we rejoice.
“He is supreme among all beings, the highest person.
He
is the lord, the greatest of all mankind.
In the forest of the seers, he will set the wheel turning.
Like the lion, lord of beasts, uttering his mighty roar!”
Asita at once left the deva world and proceeded to King Suddhodana’s house in Kapilavatthu. Having entered and taken a seat, he was greeted courteously and then said to the king, “A son has been born to you, Mahārājā, may I see him?” The king had his son brought forth, richly adorned, intending to have the baby offer homage to the seer. But the great person (mahāpurisa, i.e. the baby Gotama) turned his feet around and quick as lightning placed them on the matted hair of the ascetic’s head; for there is no person in the world worthy of receiving a Bodhisatta’s homage. Asita rose from his seat to pay homage to the Bodhisatta, and seeing this wonder, his father the king also made añjali to the baby (i.e. saluted him with joined palms). Asita looked at the marks with which the Bodhisatta was endowed (lakkhaṇasampattiṃ) and asked himself, “Will he become a Buddha or not?” and determined that without a doubt, he would. Having seen the future, he smiled, knowing “This is a wonder-person!” (acchariyapurisa) Then Asita considered whether or not he would live to see the baby become a Buddha, and he determined that he would not. Before the Bodhisatta’s full awakening, he knew he would die and be reborn in the formless realm. “I shall not be able to see this wonder-person become a Buddha, alas, great is my loss!” and he wept.
The people there asked him, “Dear sir, why did you first smile and then cry out. Is our lord’s son in any danger?” The ascetic replied, “He is in no danger, he will become a Buddha.”
On the fifth day after the Bodhisatta’s birth, they bathed his head and held the ceremony of naming. The royal palace was anointed with the fourfold scents with parched corn as the fifth. Flowers were strewn about and milk-rice was prepared. One hundred and eight brahmins, who had mastered the three Vedas, were invited. These took their seats and were offered milk-rice with honey and shown every honour. (The king) asked “What will become of him?” Among the brahmins there were a group of eight beginning with Rāma who were versed in the signs. Seven of these held up two fingers and announced two possible destinies for the boy. “If he takes up the life of a householder, he will become a cakkavatti, a wheel-turning monarch. if goes forth (pabbajamāna) then he will become a Buddha.” But the youngest of them all, a brahmin named Kondañña, seeing the marks with which the Bodhisatta was endowed, held up just one finger and said, “This one will not take a place among the householders, having drawn away the veil he will become a Buddha.” And so, because he was destined for every success (siddhi) in the world they named him Siddhattha.228
The brahmin seers in this episode are versed in the skill known as lokāyatamahāpurisalakkhaṇā, (DN 3 & MN 91) the science of knowing the marks of a “great man” (mahāpurisa). This was part of the complete education of a brahmin, which was defined as having three branches: (1) knowledge of the Vedas, (2) grammar and (3) the science of the great man’s marks (AN 3: 59, eng. 3:58).
Although mahāpurisa is occasionally used in reference to a great man in a generic sense, as one who is spiritually advanced,229 it more often has a very specific sense and refers to an extraordinary human type who comes into the world only rarely. A mahāpurisa in this technical sense has two possible destinies open to him; if he remains in the householder’s life he will become a cakkavatti, a universal “wheel-turning” monarch, but if he renounces the world he will become a Buddha. The male pronoun is used here advisedly, because a mahāpurisa is always a man (MN 115 & AN 1:279–80). (The reason for this will become clear when we examine the individual marks). The mahāpurisa can be seen as the ideal human type. He is always endowed with three qualities; wisdom, compassion and resolve (paṇidhisamādāna). The last quality means that whatever he sets his mind on accomplishing, that he achieves (DN-a 3). Mahāpurisas are only born in the majjhimapadesa and nowhere else (DN-a 2).
The lore concerning the bodily marks by which a mahāpurisa can be recognized is inserted into the Vedas by suddhāvāsa brahmās230 when they know that one will soon be born. These inserted passages become known as the buddhamantā. After the passing away of the Buddha or the cakkavatti, these passages disappear from the Vedas (MN-a 91). While it is true that the precise listing of the thirty-two marks as given in the Pali texts is not found anywhere in the pre-Buddhist literature known to us, there is mention in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa of something very like them when King Parikṣit recognizes the seer Sukadeva Goswāmi by certain physical signs. This was done by the science called samudrika, an art required of kings.231
3:1:9 THE 32 MARKS OF A MAHĀPURISA
The body of a mahāpurisa has thirty-two marks (mahāpurisalakkhaṇa) by which he may be recognized. Each of these marks is derived from some specific kamma performed by the mahāpurisa in a previous existence, and each confers some special benefit. These marks are as follows:232
1. His foot has an even tread (suppatiṭṭhitapāda), so that whenever he takes a step, his entire foot touches the ground. This sounds like simple flat-footedness, (“others have a hollow in the middle of the foot where the upper part is raised up, but he does not.”) but the commentary explains that it also means something more. If the Buddha were to step onto a low spot in the ground, the earth itself would rise up in that place “like a smith’s bellows” so that his tread remained even. Likewise, when the Buddha ascended to Tāvatiṃsa to teach the Abhidhamma, he did so in two steps only. On his first step he placed his foot on the peak of the Yugandhara Range, which is forty-two thousand yojana high, the mountain receding so his step would be level. His second step took him to the summit of Mt Sineru in the same manner. Further, wherever he steps any stumps or sharp sticks, rocks or potsherds as well as filth like dung or spittle, goes away so that he steps onto smooth clean earth.
This mark derives from having in the past undertaken mighty deeds for a righteous purpose. In the Buddha’s case, this kamma was made when he was born as a squirrel. During a mighty flood, his nest was washed away by the sea. For seven days he kept his young alive by baling the water out of the nest with his tail. The benefit conferred by the mark of a level tread is that the mahāpurisa cannot be impeded by any hostile force. In the case of a cakkavatti this refers to human foes, in the case of a Buddha, to both external adversaries and to internal defilements.
2. The soles of his feet are marked with a thousand-spoked wheel. This mark arises from the kamma of having provided beings in the past with protection and the necessities of life. The benefit is that the mahāpurisa will enjoy a large retinue; for a cakkavatti this means retainers and vassal kings, for a Buddha a large following of bhikkhus, bhikkhunīs and lay followers.
The wheels are described as “complete with hub, spokes and rim.” This language mirrors the description of the wheel which appears in the sky to a cakkavatti, of which these wheels may be taken as miniature representations. However the commentary adds something else; inscribed within the rim are a series of tiny images. Thirty-five are listed: a spear, a “splendid calf”,233 a spiral,234 a swastika (sovattika), a wreath, a set of fine garments, a pair of fish, a wicker chair, an elephant goad, a palace, an arched gateway, a royal parasol (setacchatta), a sword, a fan, a peacock’s tail, a yak tail whisk,235 a turban, a jewel, a feather (patta), a wreath of jasmine flowers, a blue water-lily, a red water-lily, a white water-lily, a lotus (paduma), a white lotus (pundarīka), a pitcher full of water, a full dish, the ocean, the world-system (cakkavāla), the Himavā mountains, Mt Sineru, the sun and the moon, the constellations, the four island-continents and the two thousand minor islands.236
These designs must be too small to see with the naked eye. The symbolism is mixed. Some of them, for instance the parasol and the whisk, are symbols of sovereignty; others are auspicious signs such as the spiral and the swastika. Yet others are marks of abundance like the full pitcher. The last few are obviously of cosmological import. A few are hard to understand, like the wicker chair and the pair of fis
h; no doubt they possessed some significance in ancient times which is now lost.
3, 4 & 5. He has long heels, long fingers and toes and an upright brahmā-like body (brahmujugatta). These marks derive from having renounced violence in previous lifetimes. The commentary specifies this a little more. One who creeps up on others to do them harm is reborn with deformed feet, one who habitually makes a fist to strike others is reborn with short or twisted fingers and one who goes about killing others is born with a dwarfish or bent body. The mahāpurisa, having refrained from these things, is born with a tall straight body and well-formed feet, fingers and toes. The benefit to the mahāpurisa in possessing these marks is that he will live a long life and no foe can ever kill him.
The long heels are described as being as long as the rest of the foot and coming to a round point. The mahāpurisa’s long fingers and toes are described as being all of the same length and tapering like a candle-wick. His straight body resembles that of a brahmā in that it does not in the slightest incline forward, backward or to either side like the bodies of ordinary people. Instead, it is as straight and upright as a gate-post in a deva city.
6. His body has seven “protruberences” (ussada), the two hands, the two feet, the two shoulders and the back. Ussada is defined by the Pali English Dictionary as “protuberance, bump, swelling” and in this context means that those areas of a mahāpurisa’s body are fleshy or muscular. The kamma resulting in this mark is the giving of fine and delicious food, and the receipt of same is the result.
The commentarial description says that while ordinary beings have little flesh in these places so that the veins and tendons of the hands and feet show through, and the bones of the back and shoulders are evident, this is not so for the mahāpurisa. He has sufficient flesh covering these places so that veins, tendons and bones are well concealed and his body resembles a golden statue.
The Buddhist Cosmos Page 16