Corrupt Saṅgha—The first of these was a peta who had been a corrupt bhikkhu. He now flew through the air in the form of a bhikkhu with his robes and bowl constantly burning with fire. Likewise there was a corrupt bhikkhunī, a corrupt sāmaṇera (novice), a corrupt sāmaṇerī (novice nun) and a corrupt sikkhamāna (probationary nun), all with burning robes and bowl (SN 19:17–21).
Miscellaneous—A few of the petas don’t fall into any of the above categories. There was a man who had committed adultery now reborn as a peta with his head submerged in a pit of dung (SN 19:11). There was another who had once put dung into the bhikkhus’ bowls and now was submerged in dung and compelled to eat it with both hands (SN 19:12). And there was a woman flying through the air with her body black with soot which was constantly burning and cooking her as she uttered cries of pain. She had once thrown a brazier of hot coals over a rival (SN 19:15).
A close look at this text indicates that most of the lore which came to be associated with petas was a relatively late development within the Buddhist tradition. It is significant that nowhere in the Lakkhaṇasaṃyutta itself these beings are explicitly called petas. It is the commentary which makes this identification. For example, the being in the first sutta is simply called a “skeleton” (aṭṭhikasaṅkhalika) and the commentary to this passage says “the being called a skeleton should be considered as one reborn in the petaloka (“peta-realm”) (SN-a 19:1). In general, most of the details about petas come from the commentaries. Although the name and concept of peta as a suffering ghost is found in the canon, references there are few and sketchy. Often, the canon uses the word peta simply to indicate the dead.381
There remains the odd detail of Moggallāna’s smile. In the text of the Lakkhaṇasaṃyutta Moggallāna himself explains it this way:
“While descending from the Gijjhakūṭā Mountain, I saw a skeleton going through the air pursued by crows, vultures and hawks who were attacking its ribs, pecking, tearing and biting as it uttered cries of pain. I thought, ‘How wonderful it is, how marvelous it is (acchariyaṃ … abbhutaṃ) that even such beings as this exist!’” (SN 19:1)
The commentary recognizes that this seems an incongruous response, although its solution will still seem unsatisfactory to many readers:
“Having seen such a being, the elder should have been moved to compassion. Why then did he smile? … He reflected, ‘Not having seen the truth, persons obtain such a form. I am freed from such a becoming. This is a gain for me, a great gain for me!’”(SN-a 19:1)
This arahant’s smile proved such a difficulty for the tradition that when the Abhidhamma came to analyze all the possible modes of consciousness into eighty-nine types, this consciousness could not be fit into the scheme without being admitted as a unique type all its own, the hasituppādacitta, “smile producing consciousness”. It causes smiling in arahants about things “that are not sublime” (Vism 14:108 & AbhSan 1:10).
3:3:3 TRANSFERENCE OF MERIT
Traditionally, the petas have been seen as the recipients of transferred merit. In brief, the idea is that when a meritorious deed is done by a living person with the earnest wish “may this benefit my dead relatives” the merit is received by the petas who experience an alleviation of their suffering as a result. The transfer of merit remains an integral part of lay Buddhist practise to the present day.
The key text is the Tirokuṭṭapetavatthu (“The Petas Outside the Walls Sutta”) of the Petavatthu382 and its commentary. –
Ninety-two kappas ago, in the time of the Buddha Phussa, there were three royal princes who gave great support to the Buddha and his Saṅgha. Many of the common folk also became lay followers, but there were others who were corrupt of heart. They hindered the offerings, taking and eating the food themselves, and even burning down the eating hall.
For ninety-two kappas, these two groups of citizens continued in the round of rebirth. The faithful were reborn in one sagga (heaven) after another; the wicked went from niraya to niraya (hell). In the present kappa, at the time of the Buddha Kassapa, the wicked ones were born as petas. At that time, people having given, would dedicate the gift (dānaṃ datvā uddisanti) for the sake of their departed relatives (ñātakānaṃ petānaṃ atthāya). Then those petas would obtain good fortune (sampatti which implies deva-like pleasure).
The petas of our story observed this, and approached the Buddha Kassapa to ask how they too might experience such happiness. He told them, “Now you cannot. But in time to come there will arise a Buddha named Gotama. One of his followers will be King Bimbisāra who was a kinsman (ñāti) of yours ninety-two kappas ago. He will make a gift to the Buddha and dedicate the gift to you, and you will receive it.” When he said this, to the petas it seemed just like they would receive happiness the next day.
In the time of the Buddha Gotama the three princes, together with a thousand of their men, were reborn in the Kingdom of Magadha. One of the princes’ officials became King Bimbisāra of Magadha. All of these became early followers of the Buddha. Upon hearing the Buddha discourse on the Dhamma, King Bimbisāra attained to the fruit of sotāpatti (first stage of awakening). He then invited the Buddha and his bhikkhus to a meal-offering on the following day. When the petas heard this, they said to one another “Now the king will make an offering, and dedicate the gift to us.” And they stood surrounding the palace full of hope.
But when the king made his offering the next day, he was thinking only about the Buddha, wondering where he was dwelling now. Therefore, he did not dedicate the gift to anyone. The petas, having not received a donation (dānaṃ alabhantā), were now without hope and throughout the night filled the palace with horrifying cries of distress. The king was filled with fear and the next day asked the Buddha about it.
“Do not fear, great king, no harm will come to you. Those are former kinsmen of yours, arisen among the petas. For the time between Buddhas they have been wandering as they awaited your offering to a Buddha and the dedication of the gift to them. Yesterday, you made a gift without a dedication and, having lost hope, they uttered cries of distress.”
The king then asked, “Can they then receive a gift?” (dinne te labheyyuṃ) “Yes, they can.” So Bimbisāra invited the Buddha to come again the following day, and the Buddha consented in silence. The next day King Bimbisāra had a great offering (mahādāna) prepared. The petas stood outside the walls, thinking “Today we might get something.” The Buddha caused them to become visible to the king.
As Bimbisāra offered water to the Buddha, he thought “May this be for my kin.” At that moment there arose lotus ponds for the petas, in which they bathed and drank, relieving their pain, thirst and fatigue and they became golden coloured. When the king offered rice and other food to the Buddha, at that very moment there arose for the petas deva-like rice, curries and dainties. These they enjoyed, and became fat (pīṇindriyā ahesuṃ). The king gave cloth and dwelling places to the Buddha and the bhikkhus, and there arose for the petas deva-like garments, palaces, beds and bedding, everything decorated in many ways. The Buddha made all the good fortune of the petas visible to the king, who was delighted at the sight. (Pv-a 1:5)
This story is taken from the commentary and frames the canonical verses which are then spoken by the Buddha to the King:
Outside the walls they stand, and at the cross-roads.
They stand by the door-posts, having returned to their homes.
An abundance of drink and food, both hard and soft is served,
But no one remembers these beings, experiencing their own kamma.
They who are compassionate should give to their kinfolk,
Pure food and drink, delicious, timely and appropriate.
“May this be for my kinfolk, may my kinfolk be happy!”
And these, having come together, the assembled departed kin (ñātipetā)
Thoroughly rejoice (anumodare) at the abundant food and drink.
“Long live our kinsfolk, the cause of our receiving this.
They have ma
de an offering (pūjā) for us. The givers will not go without reward (phālā, lit. ‘fruit’).”
There is no ploughing there, nor fields of cattle to be found.
There is no trading done there, nor buying or selling for gold.
They are supported by gifts, the petas, those whose time has gone (kālagatā).
Just as water which has rained in the hills, flows down into the valleys,
Just so, a gift given here, benefits the petas.
Just as the rivers fill the ocean
Just so, a gift given here, benefits the petas.
“They gave to me, they worked for me, my relatives, friends and companions.”
Give offerings to the petas, remembering what was done in the past.
Neither crying, nor sorrow nor any lamentation
Is of use to the petas, our kinsfolk who stand there.
But the offerings given to the well-established Saṅgha,
Have long lasting benefits, it is their proper cause.
Thus the duty of kin (ñātidhammo) has been explained:
respectful devotion (pūjā) made for the petas.
Strength has been given to the bhikkhus,
in doing so you have made not a little merit (puñña). (Pv 1:5)
This sutta, or selected stanzas, are often chanted by Theravāda bhikkhus as an acknowledgement when offerings of food or other requisites are made by the lay people. Used in this way, it is called an anumodana, literally a “rejoicing.”
The Petavatthu is a text consisting of verses, to which the commentary adds framing stories. Most of the verses and stories are about petas, their suffering and the kamma which brought it about. In about a third of the stories, the suffering of the peta is relieved when someone dedicates an offering to an arahant bhikkhu, or to the saṅgha, on their behalf.
At one time there lived a master weaver who was a devout follower of the Buddha. But his wife was otherwise, she was without faith, unhappy, full of wrong views and miserly. Once, when her husband was preparing an offering of food and cloth for the bhikkhus, she cursed him, saying: “Whatever food or drink you give to those samaṇas, followers of the Buddha, in the next world may it become dung, pus and blood. And whatever clothes you give them, may they become red-hot iron plates!”
When his time came, and the weaver died, he was reborn as a tree-deva of great power and splendour in the Viñjha Forest.383 His stingy wife became a petī living not far from his abode. She was naked, ugly and overcome with hunger and thirst. She approached the tree-deva and begged him, “My lord, I have no clothes and I wander about extremely hungry and thirsty. Please give me clothes and food.” The deva offered her some sublime deva food (dibbaṃ uḷāraṃ annapānaṃ), but as soon as she grasped it, it became dung and pus and blood. He gave her a cloak, but as soon as she put it on, it became a blazing sheet of iron. So with great suffering, and crying aloud, she wandered away.
A little later, a bhikkhu who had gotten separated from his travelling companions chanced upon the dwelling of the tree-deva. Seeing him, the deva assumed a human form, welcomed him and invited him into his abode. The deva offered the bhikkhu some ointment for his feet, paid his respects and took a seat. As it happened, just then the petī returned and again begged for clothing and food. When she was given these things, it happened just as before. The deva asked the bhikkhu if there were any way to free her from the peta realm.
“There is. If one makes a gift to the Buddha, the Noble Saṅgha or even to one bhikkhu, and dedicates it to her, and if she rejoices in it (anumodati) then she will be freed from her suffering.”
Upon hearing this, the deva offered food and drink to the bhikkhu and dedicated it to the petī. Instantly, she had a sufficiency of deva-food and became plump and satisfied. The deva then offered to the bhikkhu a set of deva-clothes (dibbasāṭakayugaṃ) for the Buddha, again dedicating the gift to the petī. She was at once attired in deva-clothes, richly decorated and adorned like an accharā (celestial nymph). (Pv-a 1:9)
As this story illustrates, it is useless to attempt to give anything directly to a peta. Only the dedication of a gift given to another is effective, and one given to the Buddha, the Saṅgha or an individual bhikkhu is especially potent in this regard. This has led some modern readers to a cynical view; H.S. Gehman in the introduction to his translation expresses the opinion that the emphasis on giving to the bhikkhus gives the impression that “there was a mercenary motive in compiling the tales.”384 However, the practice of benefitting the dead through gifts was not an entirely new doctrine of the Buddhists, but rather a beneficial joining of two pre-Buddhist ideas. First, it had long been considered meritorious in India to support religious seekers, “samaṇas and brahmins.” Second, there was a widespread practice of making offerings to various spirits and deities, especially the departed ancestors. A form of this practise survived among some Buddhists. We learn from the Kathavatthu that certain schools defended direct offering to petas, a position opposed by the Theravāda (Kv 7:6). There is however a faint trace of the older trend in the Pali canon itself. A stanza of the Petavatthu attributed to the Buddha says:
With whatever kind of ceremony (kiñcārammaṇaṃ), the generous person makes a gift
To the pubbapete (“forefathers” or “bygone petas”) to the vatthudevatā (“local deities”)
And to the Four Great Kings, guardians of the world385
… With this they are honoured (pūjitā) and the giver does not go without reward (phalā, lit. “fruit”). (Pv 1:4)
The concept of “transferring merit” seems contrary to the general Buddhist theory of kamma, which is made by oneself alone. Consider Yama’s injunction to the newcomer at the gates of niraya:
“These bad kammas were done by you alone, not by your mother, your father, your brother or sister, nor by your friends or your relatives, nor by the devas. By you were these deeds done, and it is you who will experience the results.”386
The commentaries developed a theory by which this contradiction was resolved. For transference of merit to be effective three things must be present:
1. A gift is given to a “suitable field of merit.” The word for “field” is khetta, the word used for a farmer’s field, and the metaphor is deliberately agricultural. One sows the “seeds” (bīja) and harvests the “fruit” (phala). The practical meaning is that the recipient of the gift should be a worthy person, ideally the Buddha, in practise usually a bhikkhu. However, any righteous person will do. In one place Sakka says that in the past he gave alms for ten thousand years to ten thousand fire ascetics without result, but when a righteous person (sīlavanta) ate his alms-food he was reborn in the brahmaloka. In one story a man who sees a peta and wishes to help him, merely dedicates the merit when he pays his barber (Pv-a 3:1). Nevertheless, these are exceptions, and by far the usual practise is to make offerings of food, cloth or other requisites to a bhikkhu or to the saṅgha as a whole.
2. The donor must “dedicate” (uddissati) the offering for the benefit of the peta. If this is not done, the petas cannot benefit, as Bimbisāra found out. If the person to whom the offering is dedicated is not in the peta realm, the benefit goes to some other relative of the donor; and in the beginningless saṃsāra it is impossible that one does not have some kin in the peta realm.387
3. Finally, the peta himself must acknowledge the act by rejoicing (anumodati) in the sign of merit (puññanimittaṃ). This is the detail which makes the whole consistent with the theory of kamma. A mind moment of rejoicing in the good is itself an act of good kamma. In their helpless condition, this is usually the only meritorious act of which a peta is capable.388
A further restriction on this practise is that merit can only be transferred to petas (AN 10: 177). The Milindapañhā, a late source, restricts this further by speaking of four classes of peta:
1. Vantāsikā—those who feed on what has been vomited up
2. Khuppipāsino—those who are tormented by hunger and thirst
3. Nijjhā
mataṇhika—those who are consumed by craving
4. Paradattūpajīvino—those who live on the gifts of others
The text goes on to say that only the last kind is able to receive transferred merit (Mil 5:3.4 Eng. v2 p123f.). There is no basis for this division in the canon, and in the few places where these or similar terms appear in the commentary it would be more straightforward to understand them as epithets applying to petas generally rather than as specific types.389 It does indicate that the scholarly tradition represented by the Milindapañhā was becoming increasingly uncomfortable with the idea of transferring merit, no matter how popular it was among ordinary Buddhists.
3:3:4 THE PETALOKA AND OTHER REALMS
Unlike niraya, the petaloka does not have its own geographical location. Generally, they wander on this earth invisible to most humans. Nevertheless, we are told that there was a large petaloka outside Rājagaha, (MN-a 133 & SN-a 1:20) presumably the abode of the petas seen by Moggallāna. There are also said to be peta-cities of great size.390 Usually, however, the petas seem to be solitary beings often haunting places familiar to them from their human existence as sorry shades of their former selves:
Moggallāna came upon a peta while passing through a sugar-cane field. The peta was tormented by hunger and thirst but unable to partake of the abundant sugar-cane.
“I am destroyed, I am devoured. I try and try to take some food.
I weep, but a poor fragment of myself (chinnathāmo, lit. “a cut self”)
Of what kamma is this the result?”
Moggallāna explained that in his human life he had been walking along eating sugar-cane when a poor man came up behind him and begged for some. At first he ignored the man’s pleas. After some time, without turning around, he contemptuously held a piece of sugar-cane out behind his back for the beggar to take. Moggallāna told him that now he could only take sugar-cane from behind his back. The peta did so and found he could now eat to his heart’s content. (Pv-a 4:5)
The Buddhist Cosmos Page 28