5. Policy Planning Staff Paper No. 32, January 10, 1948, Modern Military Records, National Archives.
6. Eisenhower diary.
7. Ibid.
CHAPTER TWELVE
1. Richard Harris Smith, OSS: The Secret History of America’s First Intelligence Agency, p. 363.
2. Ibid., p. 20.
3. Ibid., p. 363.
4. Ibid., p. 364.
5. Ibid., p. 364.
6. Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations With Respect to Intelligence Activities, U. S. Senate, book IV, Senate Report No. 94-755, 94th Congress, 2d session, pp. 6–9. Hereinafter cited as Church Committee.
7. Ibid., p. 12.
8. Ibid., p. 13.
9. Ibid., p. 31.
10. Edmond Taylor, Awakening From History, p. 350, as quoted in Smith, OSS, p. 361.
11. Francis P. Miller, Men From the Valley, as quoted in Smith, OSS, p. 362.
12. Washington Post, December 22, 1963; there is a good discussion in David Wise and Thomas Ross, The Invisible Government, pp. 95–98.
13. Church Committee, book IV, p. 31.
14. Harry Rositzke, The CIA’s Secret Operations: Espionage, Counterespionage, and Covert Action, pp. 186–87.
15. Wise and Ross, Invisible Government, pp. 96–97.
16. Quoted in Herbert Feis, From Trust to Terror: The Onset of the Cold War, p. 296.
17. Rositzke, CIA’s Secret Operations, p. 23.
18. Ibid., p. 53.
19. Hunt interview.
20. Smith, OSS, p. 367.
21. Ibid., p. 367; William Buckley and L. Brant Bozell, McCarthy and His Enemies.
22. Eisenhower interview.
23. Ibid.
24. Macomber interview; Hunt interview; Bissell interview.
25. Sir Kenneth Strong, Men of Intelligence, pp. 124–25.
26. Anderson interview.
27. Strong, Men of Intelligence, p. 135.
28. Thomas Braden, “I’m Glad the CIA is ‘Immoral,’ ” Saturday Evening Post, May 20, 1967, as quoted in Smith, OSS, pp. 368–69.
29. According to the Church Committee, which investigated the CIA in the mid-seventies, “during the early 1950’s the CIA attracted some of the most able lawyers, academicians, and young, committed activists in the country.” Church Committee, book IV, p. 43.
30. Smith, OSS, p. 369.
31. Ibid., pp. 370–71.
32. Bissell interview.
33. Church Committee, book IV, pp. 31–32.
34. Ibid., pp. 33–36.
35. Victor Marchetti and John Marks, The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, pp. 46–47.
36. Ibid., p. 47.
37. Tom Braden, “What’s Wrong with the CIA?” Saturday Review, April 5, 1975, as quoted in Church Committee, book I, p. 547.
38. Rositzke, CIA’s Secret Operations, p. 151.
39. Church Committee, book IV, p. 40.
40. For a balanced and insightful essay on the role of intelligence in the modern world, the best this author has read, see M. R. D. Foot, “Intelligence Services,” The Economist (London), March 15, 1980.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
1. This section is based on interviews with Eisenhower and on Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, pp. 223–25.
2. Brownell interview.
3. Eisenhower, Mandate, p. 225, reprints these letters; the originals, to John Eisenhower, June 16, 1953, and to Miller, June 10, 1953, are in the Eisenhower Library in Abilene.
4. Quoted in Herbert Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades, p. 386.
5. Lewis Strauss, Men and Decisions, p. 356.
6. Parmet, Eisenhower, p. 387.
7. Strauss, Men and Decisions, p. 268; Eisenhower, Mandate, p. 311.
8. Eisenhower, Mandate, p. 311, reprints this diary entry.
9. Parmet, Eisenhower, p. 344; Strauss, Men and Decisions, pp. 281–91.
10. Eisenhower to Strauss, June 16, 1954, Eisenhower Library, Abilene; Eisenhower, Mandate, p. 313.
11. Eisenhower, Mandate, p. 312.
12. Wainwright interview.
13. Quoted in Book IV, Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, U. S. Senate, Senate Report No. 94–755, 94th Congress, 2d Session, pages 52–53.
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
1. Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup: The Struggle for the Control of Iran, pp. 155–57. Shortly after its publication, McGraw-Hill withdrew from circulation, until a later unspecified date, this memoir of the CIA’s project to overthrow Mossadegh. Accounts of the withdrawal in The Wall Street Journal (November 6, 1979) and the New York Times (November 10, 1979) quote McGraw-Hill’s publicity director, Donald Rubin, as explaining that the recall was due to “defective production and errata” and “… problems of accuracy at the time of shipping.” Both articles emphasized that Roosevelt’s volume had cleared the mandatory CIA review, and, although there is no direct evidence that the British Petroleum Company influenced McGraw-Hill’s decision, these news reports assumed that BP had objected strongly to the former CIA operative’s allegation that the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company—BP’s predecessor company—had initially proposed the coup. Since this chapter in the CIA’s history cannot be related accurately without Roosevelt’s information, his work Countercoup is being cited here.
2. The most articulate critic of Reza Khan’s decision to assume the throne was Mohammed Mossadegh, then a member of the Iranian Parliament. Marvin Zonis, The Political Elite of Iran, p. 19.
3. See ibid., p. 21, and Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi, Mission For My Country. pp. 49–65.
4. Pahlavi, Mission For My Country, p. 80.
5. Stephen E. Ambrose, Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy Since 1938, p. 131.
6. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, p. 160.
7. Roosevelt, Countercoup, p. 59.
8. George Lenczowski, Russia and the West in Iran, 1918–1948, pp. 272, 313–14.
9. Ibid., p. 312.
10. Sharam Chubin and Sepehr Zabih, The Foreign Relations of Iran, p. 42.
11. Roosevelt, Countercoup, p. 87.
12. Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation, p. 503.
13. Pahlavi, Mission For My Country, pp. 90–91.
14. Leonard Mosley, Power Play, p. 204, as quoted in Roosevelt, Countercoup, p. 87. See also, Richard Cottam, Nationalism in Iran.
15. Acheson, Present at the Creation, pp. 504, 510.
16. Pahlavi, Mission For My Country, pp. 94–95.
17. Eisenhower, Mandate, pp. 160–61.
18. Henderson interview.
19. Roosevelt, Countercoup, p. 107.
20. New York Times, February 25, 1953; Nashville Banner, May 21, 1954.
21. Pahlavi, Mission For My Country, p. 97; Eisenhower, Mandate, p. 161.
22. Henderson interview.
23. Eisenhower, Mandate, p. 162.
24. Pahlavi, Mission For My Country, p. 98; Henderson interview.
25. Eisenhower interview.
26. Henderson interview.
27. Eisenhower, Mandate, p. 163.
28. Roosevelt, Countercoup, p. 8.
29. Ibid., p. 8.
30. Robert Anderson interview.
31. Roosevelt, Countercoup, p. 116.
32. Ibid., pp. 11–19.
33. Ibid., p. 94.
34. Henderson interview.
35. Roosevelt, Countercoup, p. 122.
36. Eric Sevareid, “CBS Reports: The Hot and Cold Wars of Allen Dulles,” CBS-TV, April 26, 1962.
37. Roosevelt, Countercoup, pp. 148–49.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
1. New York Times, August 11, 1953.
2. Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup: The Struggle for the Control of Iran, p. 170.
3. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, p. 164.
4. Roosevelt, Countercoup, pp. 171–72.
5. Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi, Mission For My Country, p. 100.
6. This reconstruction is b
ased on the New York Times reports and Pahlavi, Mission For My Country, p. 101, and Roosevelt, Countercoup, pp. 175–79.
7. Roosevelt, Countercoup, p. 179.
8. Ibid., pp. 182–85.
9. Henderson interview.
10. New York Times, August 19, 1953.
11. Roosevelt, Countercoup, p. 166.
12. Ibid., pp. 186–87; Henderson interview.
13. Roosevelt, Countercoup, p. 188.
14. Ibid., pp. 190–91.
15. Ibid., pp. 192–93.
16. Pahlavi, Mission For My Country, p. 103.
17. New York Times, August 20, 1953.
18. Roosevelt, Countercoup, p. 18.
19. New York Times, August 21, 1953.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.
22. Roosevelt, Countercoup, p. 199.
23. Ibid., p. 209.
24. Eisenhower, Mandate, p. 164.
25. Henderson interview.
26. Eisenhower, Mandate, p. 166.
27. Harwood interview.
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
1. Andrew Tully, The CIA: The Inside Story, pp. 62–64; Hunt interview; James Hagerty diary, May 20, 1954, Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas; Richard and Gladys Harkness, “The Mysterious Doings of the CIA,” Saturday Evening Post, October 30, 1954.
2. New York Times, May 19, 1954; Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, p. 424.
3. Keith Monroe, “Guatemala, What the Reds Left Behind,” Harper’s Magazine, vol. 211 (July 1955), pp. 60–65.
4. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, p. 424.
5. Quoted in ibid., pp. 422–23.
6. Hunt interview.
7. Walter Payne, “The Guatemalan Revolution, 1944–1954,” Pacific Historian, vol. 17, no. 1 (1973), p. 3.
8. Thomas P. McCann, An American Company: The Tragedy of United Fruit, p. 45; Thomas and Marjorie Melville, Guatemala; The Politics of Land Ownership; Stacy May and G. Plaza, The United Fruit Company in Latin America.
9. Payne, “Guatemalan Revolution,” p. 11.
10. Ibid., pp. 14–15; Louis McDermott, “Guatemala, 1954: Intervention or Aggression?” Rocky Mountain Social Science Journal, vol. 9, no. 1 (1972), p. 79.
11. FBI reports to the State Department are quite extensive and had remained closed to the public until we requested they be declassified under the Freedom of Information Act. The documents can be found in the correspondence between Hoover and Frederick B. Lyons in the NA814,00B file.
12. Tapley Bennett, State Department memorandum, “Some Aspects of Communist Penetration in Guatemala,” March 23, 1950, in Carrollton Press, Inc., The Declassified Documents Quarterly, vol. I, no. 3 (January 1975), p. 179B.
13. U. S. House of Representatives, Committee on Foreign Affairs, 92d Congress, 2d Session (October 10, 1972), Inter-American Affairs, p. 131.
14. McDermott, “Guatemala,” p. 14.
15. Hunt interview.
16. Payne, “Guatemalan Revolution,” p. 18.
17. Max Gordon, “History of U. S. Subversion: Guatemala, 1954,” Science and Society, vol. XXXV, no. 2 (1971), p. 142.
18. Eisenhower, Mandate, p. 421.
19. Richard Patterson, draft of speech to Rotary Club, March 24, 1950, Patterson Papers, box five, Truman Library, Independence, Missouri.
20. Hunt interview.
21. U. S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Latin America of the Select Committee on Communist Aggression, Ninth Interim Report, Communist Aggression in Latin America, p. 124.
22. U. S. Department of State, American Foreign Policy, 1950–1955, Basic Documents, vol. I, p. 1,310.
23. Bissell interview.
24. Much of this information is from the appropriate volumes of Who’s Who in America. See also, Frederick J. Cook, “The CIA,” The Nation, vol. 192 (June 24, 1961), pp. 537–41.
25. Eisenhower to Alfred Gruenther, November 30, 1954, Dwight D. Eisenhower, “November, 1954”; Eisenhower to William Robinson, August 4, 1954, Dwight D. Eisenhower, “August, 1954.”
26. Bissell interview; Hunt interview.
27. Hunt interview; Spruille Braden interview; Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes, My War With Communism, p. 50.
28. Bissell interview.
29. Goodpaster interview.
30. Hunt and Bissell interviews.
31. Hunt interview.
32. Hunt interview.
33. Hispanic American Report, vol. VII (July 1954), pp. 11–12; New York Times, June 16, 1954.
34. New York Times, May 23, June 19, 1954; Bissell interview.
35. Bissell interview.
36. USIA, “Report on Actions Taken by the U. S. Information Agency in the Guatemalan Situation,” Secret, August 2, 1954, NA714.00/8-254.
37. U. S. Department of State, Tenth Inter-American Conference, pp. 8–9; “After the Vote,” Time, vol. 68 (March 29, 1954), p. 32.
38. David A. Phillips, Night Watch: Twenty Years of Peculiar Service, pp. 40–46; Hunt interview.
39. New York Times, June 15, 1954.
40. Ibid., June 19, 1954.
41. Quoted in Stephen Schlesinger, “How Dulles Worked the Coup d’Etat,” The Nation, vol. 227, no. 14 (October 28, 1978), p. 441.
42. Goodpaster interview.
43. Fedro Guillen, Guatemala, Prologo y Epilogo de una Revolución, pp. 62–64; Phillips, Night Watch, pp. 43–44.
44. Eisenhower, Mandate, pp. 425–26.
45. Quoted in ibid., p. 427.
46. Hunt interview.
47. Hunt interview.
48. John Gerassi, “Introduction,” Venceremos: The Speeches and Writings of Che Guevara, pp. 45–47.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
1. Stephen E. Ambrose, Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy Since 1938, p. 252.
2. Ibid., p. 253.
3. Ibid., pp. 244–45.
4. Ray Cline, Secrets, Spies, and Scholars, pp. 162–63; New York Times, November 30, 1976; William Corson, The Armies of Ignorance, p. 367; Hunt interview.
5. Cline, Secrets, Spies, and Scholars, p. 163.
6. New York Times, November 30, 1976; Corson, Armies of Ignorance, pp. 367–68.
7. Cline, Secrets, Spies, and Scholars, p. 164.
8. Corson, Armies of Ignorance, p. 368; New York Times, June 4, 1956.
9. Ibid., pp. 369–70.
10. Interview with Milton Eisenhower.
11. William Colby, Honorable Men: My Life in the CIA, pp. 134–35.
12. Hunt interview.
13. Corson, Armies of Ignorance, p. 371.
14. Memorandum of conference, October 6, 1956, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Staff Notes, “October, 1956.”
15. Corson, Armies of Ignorance, p. 382.
16. Gray interview.
17. Bissell interview.
18. Cline, Secrets, Spies, and Scholars, p. 132.
19. Ibid., p. 133.
20. Halperin told the Church Committee, “I believe that the U.S. should no longer maintain a career service for the purpose of conducting covert operations.” Church Committee, vol. 7, p. 58.
21. Gray interview.
22. Church Committee, book IV, p. 62.
23. Memorandum of a conference with the President, January 19, 1957, Dwight D. Eisenhower Notes, “January, 1957.”
24. Church Committee, book IV, p. 63.
25. Ibid., p. 62.
26. Washington Post of November 13, 1954, and U. S. News of March 19, 1954.
27. Pentagon Papers, book 9, pp. 38–41.
28. Ibid., p. 241.
29. Eisenhower interview.
30. Pentagon Papers, book 9, p. 244.
31. Pentagon Papers, as published by the New York Times, July 5, 1971.
32. Pentagon Papers, book 9, pp. 334–36.
33. Pentagon Papers, New York Times, July 5, 1971.
34. Ibid.; Pentagon Papers, book 10, pp. 753–55.
35. Pentagon Papers, New York Times, July 5, 1971.
36. Ibid.
37. David Wise and Thomas Ross, Invisible Governm
ent, pp. 157–58.
38. Pentagon Papers, book 10, pp. 776–79.
39. Wise and Ross, Invisible Government, p. 140.
40. Ibid., p. 141.
41. Victor Marchetti and John Marks, The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, p. 128; Wise and Ross, Invisible Government, p. 137.
42. Pentagon Papers, New York Times, July 5, 1971.
43. Wise and Ross, Invisible Government, p. 136.
44. Cline, Secrets, Spies, and Scholars, p. 182.
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
1. Ray Cline, Secrets, Spies, and Scholars, p. 141.
2. Ibid., p. 142.
3. Ibid., pp. 142–43.
4. Ibid.
5. Andrew Tully, CIA: The Inside Story, p. 110.
6. Warren Unna, “CIA: Who Watches the Watchman?” Harper’s Magazine, April, 1958.
7. Pentagon Papers, book 9, p. 47.
8. Stephen E. Ambrose, Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy Since 1938, p. 232.
9. Interview with Eisenhower.
10. Pentagon Papers, book 9, pp. 564–65.
11. Interview with Matthew Ridgway; Ambrose, Rise to Globalism, p. 233.
12. Pentagon Papers, book 10, p. 692.
13. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, p. 372.
14. Interview with Eisenhower.
15. Pentagon Papers, book 10, p. 752.
16. Public Papers of the Presidents: DDE, 1954 (Washington, 1960), pp. 948–49.
17. Marvin Kalb and Elie Abel, Roots of Involvement: The U. S. in Asia, p. 102.
18. Pentagon Papers, book 10, pp. 1,190–98.
19. Goodpaster interview.
20. Interview with Milton Eisenhower, Baltimore Sun, September 9, 1979.
21. Eisenhower diary.
CHAPTER NINETEEN
1. This chapter is heavily based on two long interviews with Richard Bissell, one by the Columbia University Oral History Project, the other by Richard Immerman. All statements of fact and quotations not otherwise footnoted come from one or the other of the Bissell interviews.
2. Ray Cline, Secrets, Spies, and Scholars, p. 156.
3. Ibid., p. 157.
4. Church Committee, book IV, p. 59.
5. Cline, Secrets, Spies, and Scholars, p. 157.
6. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, pp. 520–21.
7. Church Committee, book IV, p. 59.
Ike's Spies: Eisenhower and the Espionage Establishment Page 40