For example, the teachings on Shamatha describe how at the initial stages of meditation training the practitioner often struggles with tension in the body and mind and needs to develop the quality of relaxation. The stability of attention is very limited in the initial stages, lasting only a couple of seconds before distraction draws attention away from the object of meditation. With more practice the tension in meditation practice decreases and the stability increases – the practitioner is able to stay focused on the object of meditation for longer time periods. The stability can increase further up to the point where practitioner is able to focus with minimal distraction for an hour or more. As the stability of meditation improves, development of clarity in meditation practice becomes the priority. This is achieved by increasing focus on detail and freshness in the practice, to reduce slipping into a stable but dull and drowsy meditative state.
The qualities of relaxation, stability and clarity of attention have not been systematically investigated in Western meditation research so far. This might be partially because secular meditation-based approaches which attracted most research interest over the last two decades do not aim to develop high levels of attention skills. Instead, the focus of meditation in the secular context has been primarily on health and well-being enhancing effects resulting from relatively small amounts of meditation practice. Development of higher levels of attentional stability would require more extensive regular meditation training – the accounts of Shamatha suggest that for most practitioners a year of meditation practice in retreat might be needed to achieve the highest levels of attentional balance (Wallace, 2006).
Aside from development of attention skills, there are elaborate accounts of many other qualities cultivated through meditation practice. These, for instance, include progression in development of the six Paramitas – qualities of generosity, ethical discipline, patience, perseverance, meditative concentration and wisdom (Rinpoche, 1998). Other accounts describe different degrees of emotional qualities developed in meditation – loving kindness, compassion, rejoicing and equanimity (Wallace, 1999). These, for example, can range from initial cultivation of loving kindness and compassion towards those close to us (and ourselves) to unconditional non-conceptual loving kindness and compassion towards all living beings. And from a perspective of the whole path of meditation, Buddhist teachings describe in detail the core qualities developed at each of the stages (Bhumis) towards most advanced levels of existential balance (Gampopa and Rinpoche, 1998). Cultivation of these qualities has received very little attention in meditation research so far, yet it is becoming more relevant to both research and practice with the increasing focus on long-term meditation.
Formal and informal meditation
Meditation is typically understood as a formal practice, often practiced while sitting on a meditation cushion in the half-lotus (legs partially crossed) or full lotus (legs fully crossed) position. However, meditation can be practiced in various ways, both formally and informally. Formal practice usually refers to periods of meditation practice which are purely dedicated to meditation and follow a standard approach or structure. In the secular mindfulness-based approaches formal meditation often starts with a meditation bell sound and then involves guidance by the mindfulness teacher which follows a certain progression of instructions. The formal meditation concludes again with a meditation bell sound followed by gentle stretching.
In the traditional Buddhist context, the standard progression of formal meditation sessions is somewhat different. For instance in Tibetan Buddhism, each practice session starts with prayers connecting the practitioner with the lineage of meditation practitioners. Then the practitioner develops motivation and intention for engaging in the meditation practice. After these initial contemplations, the practitioner engages in the meditation practice as such which can involve focusing on an object of meditation or examining the processes of the mind etc. for a certain period of time. The practice can follow a sequence of instructions read from a meditation practice text with longer periods dedicated to practice itself without teacher guidance. At the end of the meditation session the practitioner dedicates the merit accumulated from spending time in meditation practice ‘to seal’ the effects of the practice. This last part of the formal meditation session relates to the beliefs about the law of cause and effect (karma) and the importance of intentional engagement in virtuous activity.
Formal meditation can be practiced for longer or shorter periods of time during the day. In the Buddhist context, it is often recommended that the practitioner starts with shorter meditation sessions of approximately 5 minutes three or more times a day. The duration of meditation sessions gradually increases with more relaxation, stability and clarity in meditation. Longer meditation sessions for beginners are not recommended because they can lead to a build-up of tension in the body which is counterproductive to development of the quality of relaxation and hampers progress in the practice (Wallace, 2006). In the secular context, the standard format of MBSR and MBCT recommends practicing meditation for 45 minutes a day from the beginning. However, these longer sessions are supported by continuous guidance throughout the 45 minutes with relatively short periods of silence between the verbal guidance which continuously reminds the practitioner of the instructions.
Formal meditation practice does not involve sitting meditation only. Formal sessions can, for example, be conducted during movement – walking meditation is a common example in both Buddhist and secular contexts. Other routine activities such as eating can also be used as formal meditation practice across meditation contexts. In mindfulness-based approaches, eating meditation can be an opportunity to practice being in the present moment and focusing on the sensations arising as we are tasting the meal, noticing distractions and bringing attention back to the taste sensations while letting go of evaluative thinking. In the Buddhist context, eating meditation would follow the same structure as any other meditation session with initial prayers and development of motivation and intention, followed by practice of generosity and gratitude. This can, for instance, include a wish for others to enjoy nutritious food which can nourish them and support their engagement in meditation practice. The eating meditation would be concluded with dedication prayers.
Aside from formal meditation, both traditional and secular meditation training emphasizes the importance of meditation outside of formal meditation sessions. In mindfulness-based approaches practitioners are asked to select regular daily activities which they will choose to engage in mindfully – this can be taking a shower or brushing teeth mindfully, or practicing mindfulness while washing dishes or walking the dog. The mindfulness training also encourages applying mindfulness in more involved activities during the day such as engaging in a conversation or answering e-mails mindfully. During these activities the practitioners are applying the principles of mindfulness, for example, by being present with the activity rather than lost in rumination about what happened or in planning future activities. Instead the practitioners anchor their attention on the sensations in the present moment with attitudes of non-reactivity and non-judgment. These periods of informal practice can be combined with brief formal sessions a couple minutes in duration to extend the effects of meditation beyond the longer formal practice sessions.
Similarly, practitioners developing meditation in a traditional Buddhist context would be encouraged to practice both formally and informally. In this way any daily activity can be transformed into a meditation practice which would start by developing a connection with the meditation lineage and contemplating motivation and intention for the day right after waking up in the morning. All following activities during the day can be transformed into meditation, from getting dressed as a reminder of developing loving kindness and compassion for all living beings in the moment and throughout the day, through practicing mantra meditation while walking or driving to work, wishing others to have an experience of comfort while having a cup of tea etc. The informal practice during the day can also b
e combined with brief periods of formal meditation practice throughout the day. At the end of the day before going to sleep the practitioner reminds herself of all the virtuous activities she engaged in during the day and dedicates all the merit arising from this for liberation of all living beings (including herself) from suffering.
Both formal and informal practice intensifies in terms of quantity, and often also quality, when a practitioner enters a meditation retreat. Practicing in a retreat can range from half a day to months and years without a break. During retreat, a practitioner typically does not leave the retreat environment in order to engage in meditation with focus and without interruptions. Engagement with distracting activities such as watching TV, checking e-mail, internet or news, having conversations about non-meditation topics, etc. is purposefully limited during a retreat. The practitioner usually follows a pre-defined schedule while in the retreat, typically starting with a formal meditation practice before breakfast, then engaging in formal meditation practice until the evening. There are regular breaks for meals and other necessary activities throughout the day, during which informal meditation is practiced. In some retreats, a few formal meditation sessions are replaced by attending a meditation teaching or studying a meditation text. In some Buddhist traditions the daytime meditation practice would continue in the form of dream yoga during the night. In this way, the practitioner becomes immersed in meditation most of the time, which can boost the progress in meditative training.
While practicing in a retreat has many advantages and can significantly deepen a practitioner’s meditation experience, retreat is also associated with some challenges. Intensive meditation practice can bring up challenging experiences with intensity and therefore skilled guidance by an experienced meditation teacher is a necessary pre-requisite for engagement in a retreat practice. For some practitioners, the protected retreat environment may also not provide enough everyday challenges of distraction and working with emotions which may result in stagnation in their meditation practice. Therefore, it is often recommended to combine regular retreats with formal and informal practice in everyday life. This format can for most practitioners provide a balance between the deepening of meditative experience and the transfer of meditation skills into everyday life.
Adverse effects of meditation
Meditation practice can also lead to challenging experiences which have been documented both in traditional meditation literature and in Western research. A study by Shapiro (1992) reported adverse effects experienced by 27 Vipassana meditators before, after a one-month meditation retreat and at six-month follow up. The findings showed that adverse effects were relatively common – 38% to 55% of the meditators who participated in the study reported experiencing some adverse effects at the different time points of assessment. These effects included, for example, anxiety and panic, disorientation, increases in negative affect and psychosis-like experiences. Meditators with longer meditation practice reported more adverse effects at each of the three time points, suggesting that long-term meditation practice might be associated with increased likelihood of encountering adverse experiences.
More recently, researchers investigated case studies of meditation practitioners who experienced meditation-induced psychosis. They reported on a case of a meditator who engaged in an intensive and unguided meditation practice which seemed to have induced psychotic symptoms (Kuijpers et al., 2007). The practitioner, however, had a history of mental illness and also reported several external factors which could have contributed to the psychotic onset. The study also reported on other similar cases of meditation-induced psychosis and previous history of mental illness was highlighted as a factor in more than a half of them. In addition, the study noted that physical exhaustion and effects of fasting might have also been contributing factors to the onset of psychosis. All the reported cases mentioned recovery from the psychotic symptoms from a few days to six months, with the support of medication in some cases. The study concluded that a history of mental illness as well as physical exhaustion could increase the likelihood of experiencing meditation-induced psychotic symptoms.
Investigation of adverse effects arising as part of training in secular meditation-based approaches is very limited. Initial research on adverse effects of meditation more broadly divided potential adverse effects into mental, physical (somatic discomfort and pain) and spiritual (religious delusions) (Lustyk et al., 2009). The same study suggested that participants in mindfulness-based approaches are most likely to experience, even though rarely, mental adverse effects such as psychotic symptoms, dissociative states, anxiety and depression. A brief anecdotal report on adverse effects of MBSR mentioned that particularly after the all-day retreat as part of MBSR training some participants reported symptoms of disorientation and exhaustion (Dobkin, Irving and Amar, 2012). The study suggested that such experiences might be the result of closer connection with both negative and positive experiences as a result of meditation practice. A removal of usual distractions which would prevent closer contact with experience and lack of coping skills are likely also contributing factors to the onset of such adverse effects in this context. Qualifications of the mindfulness teachers and careful pre-screening of participants attending secular mindfulness-based courses may also contribute to the likelihood of participants experiencing adverse effects, even though relevant research evidence is not available yet. Overall, a recent review highlighted the need to systematically investigate adverse effects of meditation, particularly since there is a wide-spread interest in mindfulness-based approaches (Hanley et al., 2016).
Interestingly, possible adverse effects of meditation are well-documented as part of the path of long-term meditation practice in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, for example, based on teachings from master Dudjom Lingpa (Wallace, 2011). The adverse experiences are likely to arise with continuous sustained practice and are considered signs of meditative experience (‘nyam’ in Tibetan), rather than pathological states as in Western science. The traditional writings emphasize the great variety of these experiences, which is explained in the system of Tibetan medicine through imbalance of bodily elements combined with physical propensities of the practitioner. The experiences can include what from the Western perspective would be considered sensory hallucinations, paranoid thoughts, anxiety, dissociative experience, visions etc. Physical experiences of pain in different parts of the body and respiratory problems can also arise.
From the traditional Tibetan Buddhist perspective, for many practitioners such adverse experiences are an inevitable part of the path and need to be worked with in meditation practice, rather than suppressed, avoided or fixated upon. The core general guidance on dealing with such experiences is to relax in the face of these experiences, since attachment to, dissociation from and/or rumination about them can exacerbate the symptoms and lead to more lasting difficulties. The instructions regarding these experiences also emphasize the essential role of an experienced and realized meditation teacher in guiding practitioners during times when these experiences arise (Wallace, 2011). The knowledge about these states and guidance on how to work with them is typically readily available in the traditional authentic context of Buddhist meditation training.
This is where practicing within an established and time-tested system seems to be essential to development of long-term meditation practice. Secular meditation-based approaches do not take into account the whole meditative path and as a consequence also do not contain the comprehensive knowledge and a training system to deal with the adverse experiences of meditation. With the expansion of secular meditation-based approaches and, accordingly, increasing numbers of long-term meditation practitioners following secular approaches, it will soon become necessary for these approaches to develop teaching methodologies and strategies for dealing with adverse effects. Learning from traditional meditation approaches will be instrumental in this process. This is one of the reasons why the long-term perspective of meditation might necessitate bringing together the tradit
ional and modern secular approaches to meditation.
Developing a long-term perspective of meditation
In considering health and well-being effects of meditation, a long-term view of meditation practice seems indispensable. This is because the impact of meditation on our health and well-being increases with more hours of meditation practice and most likely also with better quality of meditation practice. Repeated meditation practice can enable the temporary state effects of meditation experienced during or right after meditation to gradually translate into lasting trait shifts conducive to health. Similarly, repeated practice is necessary for meditation to have longer-term impact on brain function and structure; such effects are likely to significantly reduce if meditation practice is discontinued. In developing long-term meditation practice it is important to recognize that meditation can be practiced both in formal sessions and informally, throughout the day. Integration of meditation into everyday routine activities may particularly support maintaining continuous practice without the need of lengthy formal sessions.
Cultivation of long-term meditation practice may also bring up challenging experiences which are in the traditional meditation systems considered part of the path and a step towards further stability of the practice. Guidance of an experienced meditation teacher is essential in supporting a practitioner during these adverse experiences and also in general throughout the long-term meditation training. Such guidance is currently available only in the traditional contemplative context. With the growing numbers of practitioners trained in secular meditation-based approaches, there also seems to arise an increasing need for secular meditation-based approaches to embrace the long-term view of meditation. This has implications for supporting long-term practitioners trained in the secular context which may require closer collaboration with traditional established contemplative approaches.
Neuroscience and Psychology of Meditation in Everyday Life Page 7