by Colin Grant
Martin, Tony: Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Struggle of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976
Martin, Tony: Marcus Garvey: Hero. Dover, MA: The Majority Press, 1983
Martin, Tony: African Fundamentalism: A Literary and Cultural Anthology of Garvey’s Harlem Renaissance. Dover, MA: The Majority Press, 1983
Martin, Tony: Amy Ashwood Garvey, Pan-Africanist, Feminist and Mrs Marcus Garvey No. 1 or A Tale of Two Amies. Dover, MA: The Majority Press, 2007
Maxwell, William J. (editor): Complete Poems, Claude McKay. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004
McKay, Claude: A Long Way from Home. London: Pluto Press, 1985
McKay, Claude: Harlem: Negro Metropolis. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1940
McKay, Claude: My Green Hills of Jamaica. Kingston: Heinemann Educational Books (Caribbean), 1979
McMurry, Linda: To Keep the Waters Troubled: the Life of Ida B. Wells. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998
Mencken, H.L.: Men Versus the Man: A Correspondence between Robert Rives La Monte, Socialist, and H.L. Mencken, Individualist. New York: Holt, 1910
Morel, E. D.: King Leopold’s Rule in Africa. London: Heinemann, 1904
Moses, Wilson Jeremiah: Creative Conflict in American Thought. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004
Mulzac, Hugh: A Star to Steer By. New York: International Publishers, 1963
Murray, Robert K.: Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919–1920. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1955
Murray, R.N.: J.J. Mills. His Own Account of His Life and Times: William Collins and Sangster (Jamaica) Ltd, 1969
Naipaul, V.S.: A Way in the World. London: William Heinemann, 1994
Naipaul, V.S.: A Turn in the South. London: Penguin Books, 1989
Nkrumah, Kwame: Ghana: Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah. New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1959
Niven, Alastair (editor): ‘The Commonwealth Writer Overseas’, Revue Des Langues Vivantes, 1976
Nugent, John Peer: The Black Eagle. New York: Bantam Books, 1971
Olivier, Sir Sydney: White Capital and Coloured Labour. London: The Hogarth Press 1929
Olivier, Sir Sydney: Jamaica, the Blessed Island. London: Faber & Faber, 1936
Ottley, Roi: The Lonely Warrior: The Life and Times of Robert S. Abbott. Chicago: H. Regnery Co., 1955
Ottley, Roi: New World A-Coming: Inside Black America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1943
Ovington, Mary White: Half a Man: The Status of the Negro in New York. New York: Longmans, 1911
Ovington, Mary White: Portraits in Color. New York: Viking Press, 1927
Palmer, A. Mitchell: ‘The Case Against the “Reds”’, Part III, Peacemaking, 1919–1920, Radicalism and the Red Scare, World War I At Home: Readings on American Life, 1914–1920. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1931
Parker, Matthew: Panama Fever: The Battle to Build the Canal. Hutchinson, 2007
Perry, Jeffrey B. (editor): A Hubert Harrison Reader. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 2001
Pfannestiel, Todd: Rethinking the Red Scare: The Lusk Committee and New York’s Crusade Against Radicalism, 1919–1923. New York: Routledge, 2003
Pickens, William: Bursting Bonds: The Autobiography of A ‘New Negro’. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991
Plummer, Brenda Gayle: Rising Wind: Black Americans and US Foreign Affairs, 1935–60. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996
Powell, Adam Clayton Jnr: Marching Blacks: An Interpretive History of the Rise of the Black Common Man. New York: Dial Press, 1945
Rampersad, Arnold: The Life of Langston Hughes: I, Too, Sing America, Vol.1, 1902–1941. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986
Redding, Jay Saunders: On Being Negro in America. Indianapolis, New York: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1951
Reed, John: Ten Days that Shook the World. London: Modern Books, 1928
Reynolds, David S.: John Brown, Abolitionist: The Man Who Killed Slavery, Sparked the Civil War, and Seeded Civil Rights. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005
Richards, Yvette: Conversations with Maida Springer: A Personal History of Labor, Race and International Relations. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004
Rogers, Joel A.: World’s Great Men of Colour, Vol.II. London: Touchstone, 1996
Scott, Emmet J.: Scott’s Official History of the American Negro in the World War. Washington, DC: War Department, c1919
Schuyler, George: Black and Conservative: The Autobiography of George S. Schuyler. New Rochelle, N.Y.: Arlington House, 1966
Schwarz, Bill (editor): West Indian Intellectuals in Britain. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003
Senior, Olive: Encyclopedia of Jamaican Heritage. Kingston: Twin Guinep Publishers Ltd, 2003
Shepherd, Ben: Kitty and the Prince. London: Profile Books, 2003
Shotwell, James T.: At the Paris Peace Conference. New York: Macmillan, 1937
Slotkin, Richard: Lost Battalions. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2005
Smith, Bolton: ‘The Negro in War-Time’, Public, 31 August, 1918
Smith, Richard: Jamaican Volunteers in the First World War: Race, Masculinity and the Development of National Consciousness. Manchester: Manchester University Press 2004
Stoddard, Lorthrop: The Rising Tide of Colour against White World-Supremacy. New York: Blue Ribbon Books, 1920
Stowe, Charles Edward: Harriet Beecher Stowe: the Story of Her Life. Boston and New York: Houghton Miffin, 1911
Stowe, Harriet Beecher: Uncle Tom’s Cabin: a Tale among the Lowly. London: Wordsworth Editions, 1995
Smith, Richard: Jamaican Volunteers in the First World War. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004
Stein, Judith: The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986
Stuckey, Sterling: Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987
Tanner, Jo: Dusky Maidens: The Odyssey of the Early Black Dramatic Actress. Westport: Greenweed Press, 1992
Taylor, Ula Yvette: The Veiled Garvey: The Life and Times of Amy Jacques Garvey. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002
Tolbert, Emory J.: The UNIA and Black Los Angeles. Los Angeles: Centre of Afro-American Studies, University of California, 1980
Townsend, Meredith: Asia and Europe. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1904
Trollope, Anthony: The West Indies in the Spanish Main. London: Chapman and Hall, 1860
Trollope, Anthony: Tales of All Countries. London: Chapman and Hall, 1864
Tuttle, William M. Jnr: Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996
Walker, Charles Rumford: Steel: the Diary of a Furnace Worker. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1922
Walrond, Eric: Winds Can Wake Up the Dead. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1998
Walrond, Eric: Tropic Death. New York: Collier Books, 1972
Walter, John C.: The Harlem Fox: J. Raymond and Tammany, 1920–1970. New York: State University of New York Press, 1989
Walworth, Arthur: Wilson and His Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. New York: Norton, 1986
Watkins-Owen, Irma: Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Renaissance. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996.
Wells, Ida B.: Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970
Wiggins, Rosalind Cobb: Captain Paul Cuffe’s Logs and Letters, 1808–1817. Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1996
Williams, Alfred Brockenbrough: The Liberian Exodus. An Account of the Voyage of the First Emigrants in the Bark ‘Azor’. Charleston, SC: The News and Courier Book Presses, 1878
Woodson, Carter Godwin: The Mis-Education of the Negro. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1990
Yard, Lion
el M.: First Amy Tells All. New York: The Associated Publishers, 1980
Web Sites
In the years of my research the web sites that have proved useful and that appear to remain stable include:
American Heritage: http://www.americanheritage.com/
Booker T. Washington Papers: http:/www.historycooperative.org/btw/index.html
Documenting the American South: http://Documenting the American South.gmu.edu/all.html
FBI: http://www.fbi.gov/
History Matters: http://historymatters.gmu.edu/all.html
Jamaican Family Research: http://www.jamaicanfamilysearch.com/index.htm
NOTES
Abbreviations
ABB African Blood Brotherhood
ACL African Communities League
AFRC Federal Archives and Records Centre, East Point, Georgia RG 163 Records of the Selective Service System (World War I)
AFL American Federation of Labor
AME African Methodist Episcopal Church
ATOR African Times and Orient Review
BOI Bureau of Investigation
BSL Black Star Line
CDRN Comité de Défense de la Race Nègre
DG Daily Gleaner
DJ-FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC
DNA National Archives, Washington, DC
RG 32 Records of the United States Shipping Board
RG 59 Records of the Department of State
RG 60 Records of the Department of Justice
RG 65 Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation
RG 165 Records of the War Department, General and Special Staff;
Records of the Office of the Chief of Staff
IWW Industrial Workers of the World KKK Ku Klux Klan
LDRN Ligue de Défense de la Race Nègre
NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
NYT New York Times
NYAN New York Amsterdam News
PBS Public Broadcasting Service
TNA: PRO The National Archives Public Records Office, Kew, Surrey, England
CAB Records of the Cabinet Office
CO Colonial Office
FO Foreign Office
UNIA Universal Negro Improvement Association
Prologue
1 “Marcus Garvey Dies in London” was the headline on the front page of the Chicago Defender, Saturday 18 May 1940.
2. Daisy Whyte recalled the sequence of events leading up to Garvey’s death in a speech that she later gave at UNIA offices in Kingston, Jamaica on 24 June 1945. The speech is reproduced in Garvey Papers, VII, pp. 1003-1006.
3. C.L.R. James later eulogised Garvey. In an interview on a BBC Radio 4 documentary, Up You Mighty Race, 1987, James acknowledged that their dispute was built on a false premise – on ideological differences that should not have obscured their common cause.
1. Bury the Dead and Take Care of the Living
INTERVIEWS AND CORRESPONDENCE: Philippe I. Bourgois, Ronald Harpelle, Rupert Lewis, Joyce Mary Lumsden. SOURCES: TNA: PRO CO 137/690/3729, FO 288125242, FO 288125250 – from 27 November 1910, Costa Rica. PUBLICATIONS: Amy Ashwood, Portrait of a Liberator (unpublished manuscript); Associated Press, 19 January 1907; Edward Baugh, It was the Singing; Edward Wilmot Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race; Philippe I. Bourgois, Ethnicity at Work: Divided Labour on a Central American Banana Plantation; The Right Reverend Herbert Bury, A Bishop Amongst Bananas; Ralph Hall Caine, The Cruise of the Port Kingston; John Henrik Clarke, Marcus Garvey and the Vision of Africa; E. David Cronon, Black Moses, the story of Marcus Garvey; Daily Gleaner, 26 September 1905, 16 February 1907, 21 April 1910, 21 July 1934, 22 January 1935; Gisela Eisner, Jamaica, 1830–1930: A Study in Economic Growth; Marcus Garvey, ‘The Negroes’ Greatest Enemy’, NYT, Current History magazine, September 1923; William A. Green, British Slave Emancipation: The Sugar Colonies and the Great Experiment, 1830–1865; Maxwell Hall, Hurricanes, Earthquakes (and other physical occurrences in Jamaica, 1880–1915), (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration); Ronald Harpelle, The West Indians of Costa Rica: Race, Class, and the Integration of an Ethnic Minority; Ansell Hart, Monthly Comments: Jamaica, No 23 and 24, Vol 6, October 1969; Robert Hill (ed.), The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers [hereafter Garvey Papers]; Robert Hill and Barbara Bair (eds.), Marcus Garvey, Life and Lessons; James Africanus Horton, West African Countries and Peoples; Amy Jacques, Garvey and Garveyism; Jamaica Journal (Quarterly of Institute of Jamaica), Vol 20, No. 3, August–October 1987; Michele A. Jonson and Brian L. Moore, Neither Led nor Driven; Edward Long, The History of Jamaica; Joyce Mary Lumsden, Robert Love and Jamaican Politics; Tony Martin, Race First; Claude McKay, Christmas in de Air: Complete Poems; R. N. Murray, J. J. Mills: His Own Account of His Life and Times; Sir Sydney Olivier, Jamaica, the Blessed Island; Sir Sydney Olivier, White Capital and Coloured Labour; Olive Senior, Encyclopedia of Jamaica Heritage; The Limón Times/El Tiempo (Costa Rica), 17 March 1911; Anthony Trollope, ‘Jamaica – Town’: The West Indies in the Spanish Main
1 Hall, p. 7.
2 Caine, p. 432.
3 Daily Gleaner, 16 February 1907.
4 Trollope, p. 15.
5 Sweetenham to Davis. Friction between the Governor and Admiral Davis had begun when the Governor objected to the American’s desire for the firing of a salute (in Sweetenham’s honour) on the grounds that citizens might mistake the firing for a new earthquake (Associated Press, 19 January 1907).
6 Edward Long: The History of Jamaica, 3 vols. London: Frank Cass, 1970.
7 Hart, p. 139.
8 Senior, p. 20.
9 Jamaica Journal (Quarterly of Institute of Jamaica) Vol. 20, No. 3, August–October 1987, pp. 73–77.
10 Ibid.
11 Ashwood, pp. 5–15.
12 Ibid, p. 31.
13 Thomas Carlyle was particularly vexed on behalf of the slave-owners whom he claimed were not properly compensated for the loss of earnings after the emancipation of the enslaved. In fact, the slave-holders and planters throughout the British Caribbean received £20 million from the British government.
14 Garvey Papers, VII, p. 333.
15 Garvey, p. 1.
16 Garvey Papers, VII, p. 145.
17 Garvey Papers, I, p. 4.
18 Jonson and Moore, pp. 205–209. See also Daily Gleaner, 21 July 1934.
19 Jamaica Journal, 1987, pp. 73–77.
20 Daily Gleaner, 26 September 1905.
21 Daily Gleaner, 22 January 1935.
22 Jamaica Journal, 1987, pp. 73–77.
23 Garvey Papers, I, p. 3.
24 George Fortunatus Judah was the son of Abraham Fortunatus Judah, a local historian who compiled a book on the Jewish presence in Jamaica, The Jews’ Tribute in Jamaica.
25 Garvey Papers, I, p. 5.
26 Hill, p. 35.
27 Ashwood, p. 352.
28 Garvey Papers, I, p. 5.
29 For an examination of the corruption of the Jamaican legislative council see Green, pp. 65–95.
30 Sydney Olivier’s White Capital and Coloured Labour was actually graciously ‘dedicated to African Peoples’ and sought to scrutinise some of the commonly held perceptions of black people. Summarising the change in attitude brought about by the end of slavery, Olivier noted on p. 108, ‘When [the African] was removed from the sanction of force by emancipation, and from that of affection and duty by the substitution of wage labour, he naturally became from the point of view of the employer … a very idle and conscienceless person.’
31 Clarke, pp. 33–34.
32 Daily Gleaner, 21 April 1910.
33 Interview with Lumsden, 21 November 2005 (telephone). Background information on Robert Love from Lumsden, pp. 1–10.
34 Murray, p. 109, quoted in Garvey Papers, I, p. 25.
35 Green, pp. 379–388.
36 McKay, p. 7.
37 Cited in Eisner, p. 311.
38 Bury, pp. 108–110.<
br />
39 ‘Knee-dipping’ comes from Baugh; ‘all the imaginable dinginess’ from Olivier, Jamaica, the Blessed Island, p. 442; and ‘uncongenial’ from TNA: PRO CO 137/690/3729.
40 TNA: PRO FO 288125242.
41 TNA: PRO FO 288125250 – from 27 November 1910, Costa Rica.
42 Jacques, p. 6.
43 The Limón Times/El Tiempo ( Costa Rica), 17 March, 1911. See also Harpelle, pp. 25–41.
44 Amy Jacques seems to have been the source of these assertions that Garvey’s Central and South American journey included Honduras, Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela. See Jacques, Garvey and Garveyism, p. 7; Cronon, p. 15; Martin, p. 5.
45 ‘Sickened with fever, and sick at heart over appeals for help on their behalf, he decided to return to Jamaica in 1911.’ From Jacques, Garvey and Garveyism, p. 7.
46 Daily Gleaner, 23 January 1935.
2. Almost an Englishman
INTERVIEWS AND CORRESPONDENCE: Hakim Adi, Vivian Crawford, Jeffrey Green, Robert Hill. SOURCES: TNA: PRO CO 351/20, CO 351/21, CO 554/35/55259. PUBLICATIONS: Dusé Mohamed Ali, ‘White Women and Coloured Men, the Other Side of the Picture’, New Age, 21 January 1909; African Times and Orient Review (hereafter, ATOR); Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, Secret History of the English Occupation of Egypt; John H. Clarke, Marcus Garvey and the Vision of Africa; W. E. B. Du Bois, Selected Writing; Ian Duffield, Dusé Mohamed Ali and the Development of Pan-Africanism 1866–1945; William Ferris, The African Abroad, or His Evolution in Western Civilization; Flair magazine, 17 August 1987; Marcus Garvey, ‘Negroes’ Greatest Enemy’ (Current History, September 1923); The Gleaner, 1911; Jeffrey Green, Black Edwardians: Black People in Britain, 1901–1917; Robert Hill, Garvey Papers; Journal of the Royal African Society, Vol. 12, No. 8 (July 1913); David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, Biography of A Race; New Jamaican, August 1932; Alastair Niven (ed.), The Commonwealth Writer Overseas; Joel A. Rogers, World’s Great Men of Colour; Ben Shepherd, Kitty and the Prince; The Tourist, 19 June 1914: 61–63; Eric Walrond, ‘The Negro in London’ Black Man (March 1936)
1 Garvey Papers, I, p. 5.
2 Quoted in Green, p. 92.
3 Walrond, pp. 9–10.
4 New Jamaican, August 1932; quoted in Clarke, pp. 38–39.
5 Rogers, Vol. 2, pp. 417–419.
6 Merriman quoted in Green, p. 240.