by Colin Grant
1 Cited in Ashwood, p. 3.
2 Negro World, 16 October 1919 and 10 September 1921.
3 McKay, p. 49.
4 Anderson offers an interesting analysis of this attitude.
5 Opportunity, February 1926. Opportunity was the organ of the Urban League which was founded in 1911 for the welfare of black people, and for their adjustment and assimilation into urban life.
6 Schulyer, pp. 119–122.
7 Wells, pp. 380–382; Ashwood, p. 3.
8 Jacques, Garvey and Garveyism, pp. 190–191.
9 Mulzac, pp. 76–77.
10 Ashwood, p. 349.
11 Garvey Papers, I, pp. 434–436.
12 Garvey Papers, I, p. 449.
13 Samad, interview with author, Kingston, Jamaica, October 2005.
14 Semi-Weekly Louisianan, 15 June 1871. Quoted in Litwack, pp. 502–556.
15 Moore, The Critics and Opponents of Marcus Garvey, in Clarke, p. 222.
16 Although the analogy of black people impeding each other’s progress like crabs in a barrel was often attributed to Booker T. Washington, it almost certainly pre-dates him.
17 Jacques, The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey, p. 77.
18 Garvey Papers, I, pp. 471–472.
19 Ashwood, p. 45.
20 Garvey Papers, I, p. 499.
21 Ibid, p. 505.
22 McKay, p. 132.
23 Du Bois, pp. 5–9.
24 Mulzac, p. 77.
25 Garvey Papers, II, p. 106.
26 American Mercury magazine, May–August 1926, p. 210.
27 Jacques, The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey, pp. 321–322.
28 Garvey Papers, II, p. 68.
29 Jacques, Garvey and Garveyism, p. 113.
30 Ibid, pp. 39–40.
31 Holder, pp. 33–35.
32 New York Times, 17 October, 1919.
33 Hill, interview with author, October 2006 (Los Angeles) and November 2006 (telephone).
34 History Detectives, Season 3, Episode 2 (2005).
35 Garvey Papers, II, p. 134.
36 Ibid, p. 124.
37 Negro World, editorial, 6 December 1919.
10. A Star in the Storm
INTERVIEWS AND CORRESPONDENCE: Robert Hill, Marian Samad, Edward Seaga. SOURCES: TNA: PRO CO 137/747; TNA: PRO CAB 24/104 rep. No. 18, April 1920, file: 15/D/155; Amy Ashwood Garvey Collection MS 1977, box 7, ‘Marcus Garvey’, chapter II, 21, National Library of Jamaica, Kingston. PUBLICATIONS: John H. Clarke, Marcus Garvey and the Vision of Africa; W. E. B Du Bois, ‘The Rise of the West Indian’, Crisis, September 1920; Du Bois, ‘Dusk of Dawn’, extracted in Selected Writings; Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk; Robert Hill, Garvey Papers; Robert Hill and Barbara Bair (eds.), Marcus Garvey: Life and Lessons; Amy Jacques, Garvey and Garveyism; James Weldon Johnson, Black Manhattan; Theodore Kornweibel, Seeing Red; David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919–1963; Claude McKay, Harlem: Negro Metropolis; Claude McKay, A Long Way From Home; Tony Martin, ‘Amy Ashwood Garvey: Wife No. 1’, Jamaica Journal, 1987; Hugh Mulzac, Cleveland Gazette, 6 October 1923; Hugh Mulzac, A Star to Steer By; Mary White Ovington, Portraits in Color; Jeffrey B. Perry, Hubert Harrison Reader; Richard Smith, Jamaican Volunteers in the First World War; Ula Yvette Taylor, The Veiled Garvey: The Life and Times of Amy Jacques Garvey; UNIA Constitution and Book of Laws, article V, section 2; John C. Walter, The Harlem Fox: J. Raymond Jones and Tammany, 1920–1970; Washington Evening Star, 5 February 1920; World Magazine, 4 December 1921; Lionel M. Yard, First Amy Tells All
1 McKay, Harlem: Negro Metropolis, p. 90.
2 Garvey Papers, II, p. 162.
3 Perry, p. 196.
4 Jacques, p. 39.
5 Garvey Papers, II, p. 541. Agent P-138 was Herbert Boulin, president of the Berry and Ross (Black) Toy and Doll Manufacturing Company.
6 Edward Seaga, interview with author, July 2002.
7 Ovington, p. 19. Also cited in Lewis, p. 64.
8 TNA: PRO CAB 24/104 rep. No. 18, April 1920, file: 15/D/155.
9 The under prepared and ill-equipped black troops were sent against the enemy without the benefit of wire cutters to speed their passage through no-man’s land but also, more importantly, their offensive had not been preceded by the necessary artillery fire to ‘soften up’ the German front line. Black troops were stigmatised by the ‘failure’ of the Muse-Argonne offensive for decades afterwards. See Du Bois’s The Black Man in the Great War (extracted in Du Bois Selected Writings, p. 891).
10 Kornweibel, p. 108. Liberty Hall meeting recorded in the Negro World.
11 Garvey Papers, II, p. 202 on drilling. ‘Pins removed …’, interview with Mariamne Samad, November 2005.
12 Smith, pp. 2–3. Grant emigrated to the US soon after the Great War, working mostly in restaurants and eventually gravitating towards the UNIA where he was a prominent member of the Tiger Division – a sub-division of the African Legion. He fell out with Garvey over his rough tactics back in Jamaica and was expelled amid much publicity following the 1934 UNIA convention in Kingston.
13 Kornweibel’s Seeing Red provides extensive background to the BOI agents who infiltrated the UNIA, and the surveillance of other black radical groups following the Armistice of the Great War.
14 Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk, p. 5.
15 Mulzac, A Star to Steer By, p. 78.
16 Garvey Papers, II, pp. 157–158. See also Perry, p. 186.
17 The rumour would surface a few years later in Garvey’s career during his trial for mail fraud. See Garvey Papers, VI, p. 497.
18 Negro World, 6 December 1919, printed in Garvey Papers, II, pp. 159–160.
19 Garvey Papers, II, pp. 110–111.
20 Du Bois, ‘Dusk of Dawn’, Selected Writings, p. 757. His article ‘The Rise of the West Indian’ was printed in Crisis, September 1920.
21 McKay, p. 110.
22 Jacques, p. 43.
23 Garvey Papers, II, pp. 180 and 636.
24 UNIA Constitution and Book of Laws, article V, section 2. See also Garvey Papers, I, p. 260.
25 Martin, pp. 32–39.
26 Perry, p. 184.
27 Mulzac, p. 78.
28 Mulzac, Cleveland Gazette, 6 October 1923. See also Garvey Papers, IV, p. 473.
29 Washington Evening Star, 5 February 1920. As well as the missing cases, once the Yarmouth arrived back in New York, workmen were apprehended as they loaded stolen bottles of whisky into a small boat. Hill, Garvey Papers, II, p. 208. Reverend Jonas maintained that gangsters had plotted to sabotage the ship and rob her of her valuable cargo. Cockburn had saved the day and faced down the plotters with his service revolver.
30 Garvey Papers, II, pp. 205–210.
31 Mulzac, Cleveland Gazette, 6 October 1923.
32 Mulzac, A Star to Steer By, p. 79.
33 Johnson, p. 123. ‘When a West Indian gets 10 cents above a beggar, he opens a business which may range from a tailor shop to a Wall Street firm.’
34 Walter, pp. 35–43.
35 PBS TV, In the Whirlwind of the Storm.
36 Walter, p. 44. Esusu or sou-sou (pardner in Jamaica) is a friendly cooperative saving scheme in which each member of a small group contributes an equal portion of money each week to a keeper and each member then draws regularly on the total amount in rotation (on their turn). See also Richard Allsopp, Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 540.
37 Garvey Papers, II, p. 430.
38 Herbert J. Seligman, World Magazine, 4 December 1921. See also Garvey Papers, IV, pp. 239–244.
39 McKay, pp. 101–116.
40 Yard, p. 59.
41 Amy Ashwood Garvey Collection MS 1977, box 7, ‘Marcus Garvey’, chapter II, 21, National Library of Jamaica, Kingston. Also quoted in Taylor, p. 29.
42 Hill and Bair, p. 67.
43 Jacques, p. 43.
44 Samad, interview, November 2005.
45 Hill, interview, October and N
ovember 2006.
46 TNA: PRO CO 137/747. See also Garvey Papers, II, p. 286.
47 Negro World, 31 July 1920, printed in Garvey Papers, II, p. 470.
48 Garvey Papers, III, p. 7 from Special Agent P-138’s report, 4 November 1920.
49 Garvey Papers, V, p. 35.
11. He Who Plays the King
SOURCES: ‘A Monthly Review of the Progress of Revolutionary Movement Abroad’, Home Office, Directorate of Intelligence, report No. 13, 10 November 1919, CAB 24/92; St Vincent Government Gazette 52, No. 56, 1 October 1919. PUBLICATIONS: Jervis Anderson, A. Philip Randolph: A Biography; Baltimore Observer, May 1920; John H. Clarke, Marcus Garvey and the Vision of Africa; Crisis, 21 December 1920; Crisis, January 1921; Daily Telegraph, 4 August 1920; W. E. B. Du Bois, ‘Dusk of Dawn’, extracted in Selected Writings; Hubert Harrison’s Diary from 31 August 1920, quoted in Liberator, April 1922; Hubert Harrison, When Africa Awakes; Robert Hill (ed.), Crusader Vol. I, August 1919; Robert Hill, Garvey Papers; Amy Jacques, Garvey and Garveyism; Claude McKay, A Long Way from Home; V. S. Naipaul, A Turn in the South; Negro World, 10 April 1920; Negro World, 14 January 1922; New York Herald, September 1922; Jeffrey B. Perry, Hubert Harrison Reader
1 Garvey Papers, II, p. 477.
2 Negro World, 14 January 1922.
3 Garvey Papers, II, pp. 431–432.
4 Du Bois ‘Dusk of Dawn’, Selected Writings, pp. 276–277. See also Clarke, p. 99.
5 ‘Needed to take a bath’, Crisis, December 1920; ‘Broadway in a green shirt’, Crisis, January 1921.
6 Perry, p. 192.
7 Baron Emile de Cartier de Marchienne to Henri Jaspar, 29 June 1921. Printed in Garvey Papers, IX, p. 43.
8 Garvey Papers, II, pp. 525–526.
9 Ibid, p. 546.
10 Ibid, p. 508.
11 Naipaul, p. 227.
12 Garvey Papers, III, p. 724.
13 McKay, p. 113.
14 Perry, p. 184.
15 Hubert Harrison’s Diary from 31 August 1920, quoted in Perry, p. 193.
16 Hill, Crusader Vol. I, August 1919, pp. 8–9.
17 Perry, p. 194.
18 Daily Telegraph, 4 August 1920.
19 Garvey Papers, II, p. 188.
20 Ibid, p. 239.
21 ‘A Monthly Review of the Progress of Revolutionary Movement Abroad’, Home Office, Directorate of Intelligence, Report No.13, 10 November 1919, CAB 24/92.
22 St Vincent Government Gazette 52, No. 56, 1 October 1919. The same edition also gave notice that the Colonial Postmaster or any person appointed by him for the purpose, might, without reference to the Administrator, detain or destroy copies of the Negro World.
23 Garvey Papers, II, p. 345.
24 Garvey Papers, IX, p. 54.
25 Garvey Papers, II, p. 512.
26 Perry, pp. 377–378.
27 Jacques, p. 189.
28 New York Herald, September 1922. Also cited in Anderson, p. 132.
29 Perry, p. 146, extracted from Harrison, pp. 55–60.
30 Ibid.
31 Garvey Papers, II, p. 571.
32 ‘The Bill of Rights’, No. 42 stated: ‘We declare it an injustice to our people and a serious impediment to the health of the race to deny to competent licensed Negro physicians the right to practise in the public hospitals of the communities in which they reside, for no other reason than their race and colour.’ Printed in Garvey Papers, II, p. 572.
33 Crisis, 21 December 1920.
34 Garvey Papers, IV, pp. 1–2.
35 Baltimore Observer, May 1920.
36 Garvey Papers, II, pp. 622–623.
37 Garvey Papers, II, p. 620.
38 Garvey Papers, II, pp. 559–560.
39 Garvey Papers, III, p. 402. The editorial was originally written by Domingo. The conflict between Domingo and Garvey centred on Domingo’s Socialism and his promulgation of Socialist views in the Negro World. As the proprietor of the Negro World, Garvey sought to use the paper to promote his views about the direction of the UNIA and increasingly about the primacy of race. Domingo demurred. For Domingo, the class struggle came first; he held fast to the doctrine that Socialism would unite the black and white working class. However, in signing his name to the editorial, ‘Race First’, Domingo adopted a stance at variance with the conventional Socialist line. The editorial appeared in the Negro World on 26 July 1919 and chimed with the philosophy of the UNIA. Domingo resigned in July. The editorial was reprinted in the Negro World on 10 April 1920, in part to embarrass Domingo who was now attacking Garvey in print.
40 Liberator, April 1922.
41 Garvey often spoke admiringly of Bismarck. In his speeches, he regularly invited UNIA audiences to draw lessons from the blood sacrifice of the German people in their quest for unification. Garvey said that he too was satisfied to be a dreamer like Bismarck, and to lead the battle cry for a new African empire. See Garvey Papers, I, p. 352, Garvey Papers, II, p. 257 and Garvey Papers, III, p. 26.
12. Last Stop Liberia
INTERVIEWS AND CORRESPONDENCE: Philippe Bourgois, Ali Mazrui. SOURCES: Journal of Daniel Coker on a Voyage for Sherbro in Africa; Phyllis Lewsen, ‘Selections from the Correspondence of John X. Merriman, 1890–98’, cited in Hollis R. Lynch, Edward Wilmot Blyden: Pan-Negro Patriot; United Fruit Company correspondence collected by Philippe Bourgois and Ronlad Harpelle. PUBLICATIONS: A. M. B. Akpan, ‘Liberia and the UNIA: The background to the abortion of Garvey’s scheme for African Colonization’, Journal of African History, XIV, I (1973); Philippe Bourgois, Ethnicity at Work; J.W.E. Bowen, Africa and the American Negro; John H. Clarke, Marcus Garvey and the Vision of Africa; Crisis, Vol. 22, No. 2, June 1921; E. David Cronon, Black Moses, the Story of Marcus Garvey; Du Bois, Crisis, September 1920; Scott Ellsworth, Land of Hope; Imanuel Geiss, The Pan-African Movement; James Hall, An Address to the Free People of Colour of the State of Maryland; Robert Hill, Garvey Papers; James Africanus Horton, West African Countries and Peoples; Edward Hurley, Bridge to France; Amy Jacques, Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey; James Weldon Johnson, Crisis, July 1921; Olive Lewin, Rock It: Folk Music of Jamaica; Hollis R. Lynch, Edward Wilmot Blyden: Pan-Negro Patriot, 1832–1912; Tony Martin, Race First; Moore and Johnson, Neither Led Nor Driven; York Times, 7 March 1921, 5 June 1921; Matthew Parker, Panama Fever: The Battle to Build the Canal; Jeffrey Perry, Hubert Harrison Reader; Monica Schuler, Alexander Bedward; New; Sierra Leone Guardian and Foreign Mails, VII, 16 February 1912; Rosalind Cobb Wiggins (ed.), Captain Paul Cuffee’s, Logs and Letters, 1808-1817 (Howard University Press, 1996); A. B. Williams, The Liberian Exodus: An Account of Voyage of the First Emigrants in the Bark ‘Azor’
1 Garvey Papers, III, p. 50. Garvey had planned to launch the Phyllis Wheatley on 1 January 1921.
2 Scott Ellsworth’s Land of Hope is a comprehensive and compelling account of the Tulsa race riot from 1 June 1921.
3 New York Times, 5 June 1921.
4 Johnson, Crisis, July 1921. Johnson was critical of the UNIA for allegedly not providing any assistance to the refugees.
5 Journal of Daniel Coker. In the journal Coker, ‘a descendant of Africa’ gives an account of the search for suitable land for the emigrants, ninety ‘persons of colour’ aboard the ship, Elizabeth.
6 Williams, p. 26. The company was not able to raise funds for another Atlantic crossing despite the continued enthusiasm of the black folk for migrating.
7 Garvey Papers, I, Appendix, pp. 536–547.
8 Wiggins, pp. 404.
9 James Hall was the general agent of the Maryland State Colonization Society. The address was printed as a pamphlet by John D. Toy in 1859.
10 Perry, pp. 143–144.
11 Bowen, pp. 195–198. J. W. E. Bowen was the editor of a collection of essays that formed the ‘Addresses and Proceedings of the Congress of Africa, 13–15 December 1896’. The section quoted in pp. 195–198 refers to Bishop H. M. Turner’s essay, ‘The American Negro and the Fatherland’.
12 Horton, p. 243.
13 Hilar
y Teague’s speech in Monrovia, cited in Horton, p. 246.
14 Clarke, introduction, p. xxii.
15 Lewsen, cited in Lynch p. 77.
16 Edward Blyden to William Coppinger (Secretary of the American Colonisation Society), 3 October 1887. Also cited in Lynch, p. 121.
17 Sierra Leone Guardian and Foreign Mails, VII, 16 February 1912, quoted in Lynch, p. 139.
18 Garvey Papers, III, p. 81.
19 Du Bois, Crisis, September 1920.
20 Garvey Papers, II, p. 347, Edwin Barclay to Elie Garcia, 14 June 1920.
21 Ibid, p. 346.
22 Garvey Papers, III, p. 158, Marcus Garvey to Gabriel Johnson, 1 February 1921.
23 Jacques, p. 366.
24 Garvey Papers, III, p. 135, Marcus Garvey to Gabriel Johnson, 18 January 1921.
25 Garvey Papers, III, pp. 485–490, Cyril Crichlow to Marcus Garvey, 24 June 1921.
26 Quoted in Martin, p. 124.
27 Ibid.
28 Garvey Papers, III, p. 247, 11 March 1921.
29 Garvey Papers, III, p. 140, Sir James Willcocks, Governor General of Bermuda to Winston Churchill, the British Secretary of State for the Colonies, 26 January 1921.
30 Ibid, p. 206.
31 Garvey Papers, III, p. 219, Gloster Armstrong to Auckland C. Geddes, British Ambassador, Washington, DC, 17 February 1921.
32 Ibid, p. 236, J. Edgar Hoover to William L. Hurley, 24 February 1921.
33 Ibid, p. 249, Alfred Hampton, Assistant Commissioner General, Bureau of Immigration to J. Edgar Hoover, 11 March 1921.
34 New York Times, 7 March 1921.
35 Hurley, (foreword).
36 Garvey Papers, III, p. 271.
37 Ibid, pp. 371 and 195.
38 Garvey wrote a lengthy rebuttal to Reverend Price published in the Daily Gleaner, 5 April 1921. See also Garvey Papers, III, pp. 332–339.
39 Garvey Papers, III, pp. 344–349.
40 Ibid, p. 418.
41 Jamaican folk song. See Lewin, pp. 33–34.
42 Moore and Johnson, pp. 85–86. ‘Sticks to earth …’, headline from the Daily Gleaner, 3 January 1921. For more details on the life of Bedward see Monica Schuler’s entry on Alexander Bedward in the Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History, published in association with the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture by MacMillan Reference USA, pp. 229–230.
43 Garvey Papers, III, p. 323.