Pax Romana

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by Adrian Goldsworthy


  18 Tabulae Vindolandenses II 154.

  19 RMR 100, and see discussion in F. Lepper & S. Frere, Trajan’s Column (1988), pp. 244–59; on dispersal of units see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 22–8.

  20 On forts and their function see M. Bishop, ‘Praesidium: social, military, and logistical aspects of the Roman army’s provincial distribution during the early Principate’, in A. Goldsworthy & I. Haynes (eds), The Roman Army as a Community. JRA Supplementary Series 34 (1999), pp. 111–18 and B. Dobson, ‘The rôle of the fort’, in W. Hanson (ed.), The Army and the Frontiers. JRA Supplementary Series 74 (2009), pp. 25–32; on Chester see T. Strickland, ‘What kind of community existed at Chester during the hiatus of the 2nd c.?’, in Goldsworthy & Haynes (1999), pp. 105–9.

  21 RMR 10, Florida Ostraka 3, 5.

  22 P. Bidwell, ‘Systems of obstacles on Hadrian’s wall and their relationship to the turrets’, in A. Moirillo, N. Hanel & E. Martín, Limes XX: Estudios sobre la frontera romana. Roman Frontier Studies. Anejos de Gladius 13 Vol. 3 (2009), pp. 1119–24.

  23 N. Hodgson, ‘Gates and passages across the frontiers: the use of openings through the barriers of Britain, Germany and Raetia’, in Visy (2005), pp. 183–7; centurio regionarius Tab. Vind. II 250. 8, centurions attending tribal councils, Dio 73. 2. 4.

  24 CIL 8. 2495.

  25 T. Kinsella, The Táin. From the Irish Epic Táin Bó Cuailnge (1969), p. 52; Homer, Odyssey 11. 397–403 (Loeb translation).

  26 The expressions are used by E. Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century AD to the Third (1976). His usage is subtle and does not imply a sharp divide between these levels of warfare, but this seems assumed by many who have used his works, including his critics; accepting raiding, but seeing this as not a threat, see J. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213–496 (2007), pp. 11–42, who suggests emperors invented a ‘barbarian threat’ to satisfy their own political needs.

  27 CIL 3. 3385.

  28 Tacitus, Germania 5. 1–2.

  29 On comites see Tacitus, Germania 13; finds of weapons and other equipment dedicated as the spoils of victory in Scandinavian bogs can be interpreted to suggest forces of 200–300 men as the followers of a war leader, see X. Jensen, L. Jørgensen & U. Hansen, ‘The Germanic army: warriors, soldiers and officers’, in B. Stoorgard & L. Thomsen (eds), The Spoils of Victory. The North in the Shadow of the Roman Empire (2003), pp. 310–28.

  30 Caesar, BG 6. 34–5, 41; fourth century, Ammianus Marcellinus 17. 10. 5–6, 18. 2. 2–3, 7–8; Hannibal, see Livy 22. 13. 5–9.

  31 Tacitus, Germania 41 (Loeb translation); Dio 72. 11. 2–3.

  32 Jerusalemite Talmud, Erubin 4, p. 21, col. 4, Babylonian Talmud, tractate Yebamoth 48 and see discussion in M. Gichon, ‘Life on the borders reflected in rabbinical sources’, in A. Morillo, N. Hanl & E. Martín (eds), Limes XX. Estudios Sobre La Frontera Romana Roman Frontier Studies Vol. 1 (2009), pp. 113–18.

  33 Tacitus, Ann. 13. 54. 1, Hist. 1. 79, Ammianus Marcellinus 31. 10.

  34 Caesar, BG 8. 3, Cicero, Verrines 2. 4. 95, 96, Babylonian Talmud, Baba Qama 83a.

  35 H. Cuvigny, Ostraca de Krokodilô (2005), p. 87, with V. Maxfield, ‘Ostraca and the Roman army in the eastern desert’, in J. Wilkes (ed.), Documenting the Roman Army. Essays in Honour of Margaret Roxan (2003), pp. 153–73, esp. 166–7.

  36 Observation of nomads and others by military outposts in North Africa, see R. Marichal, Les Ostraca du Bu Njem (1979), pp. 436–52; villa at Regensburg-Harting, Drinkwater (2007) pp. 78–9; Apuleius, Metamorphoses 8. 16–17.

  37 Caesar, BG 6. 34 (Loeb translation).

  38 Tacitus, Ann. 12. 27 for quote (Loeb translation), 12. 39 for the Silures, Ammianus Marcellinus 27. 1–2.

  39 M. Todd in A. Bowman, P. Garnsey & A. Cameron, The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 12 (Second Edition): The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337 (2005), p. 442; Ammianus Marcellinus 19. 6. 2.

  40 Tacitus, Ann. 12. 27–8.

  41 RIB 1142.

  42 D. Potter, ‘Empty areas and Roman frontier policy’, American Journal of Philology 113 (1992), pp. 269–74.

  43 Tacitus, Ann. 12. 31, Agricola 18.

  CHAPTER XIV – BEYOND THE PAX ROMANA

  1 Tacitus, Agricola 24. 1–2 (Loeb translation).

  2 On maps and boundaries, note the sensible comments in E. Wheeler, ‘Methodological limits and the mirage of Roman Strategy. Parts 1 & 2’, The Journal of Military History 57 (1993), pp. 7–41 and 215–40, esp. 24–6 and 228–30.

  3 Tacitus, Hist. 4. 64–65 (Loeb translation).

  4 H. Cuvigny, Ostraca de Krokodilô (2005), p. 252, with translation and discussion in D. Nappo & A. Zerbini, ‘Trade and taxation in the Egyptian desert’, in O. Hekster & T. Kaizer (eds), Frontiers in the Roman World. Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Durham, 16–19 April 2009) (2011), pp. 61–77, esp. 72–74; see also V. Maxfield, ‘Ostraca and the Roman army in the eastern desert’, in J. Wilkes (ed.), Documenting the Roman Army. Essays in Honour of Margaret Roxan (2003), pp. 153–73, esp. 154–6, 164–7.

  5 P. Wells, The Barbarians Speak. How the Conquered People Shaped Roman Europe (1999), pp. 122–47, D. Whittaker, Frontiers of the Roman Empire. A Social and Economic Study (1994), pp. 98–131.

  6 In general see C. Sebastian Sommer, ‘The Roman army in SW Germany as an instrument of colonisation: the relationship of forts to military and civilian vici’, in A. Goldsworthy & I. Haynes (eds), The Roman Army as a Community. JRA Supplementary Series 34 (1999), pp. 81–93.

  7 B. Shaw, ‘Fear and Loathing: the nomad menace and Roman Africa’, in B. Shaw, Rulers, Nomads, and Christians in Roman North Africa (1995), VII, pp. 25–46, esp. 42–5.

  8 J. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213–496 (Caracalla to Clovis) (2007), pp. 80–116.

  9 Periplus Maris Erythraei 49, translation taken from L. Casson (ed.), The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation and Commentary (1999).

  10 On Roman trade with India see R. Tomber, ‘Pots, coins and trinkets in Rome’s trade with the East’, in P. Wells (ed.), Rome Beyond its Frontiers: Imports, Attitudes and Practices. JRA Supplementary Series 95 (2013), pp. 87–104, C. Whittaker, ‘Indian trade within the Roman imperial network’, in Whittaker (2004), pp. 163–80; Pliny the Elder, NH 12. 84.

  11 Tacitus, Ann. 2. 62 (Loeb translation, slightly modified); Pliny the Elder, NH 37. 45; Q. Atilius Primus, see AE 1978, 635; on Marcomani and Quadi see L. Pitts, ‘Relations between Rome and the German “kings” on the Middle Danube in the first to fourth centuries AD’, JRS 79 (1989), pp. 45–58, esp. 46–51.

  12 In general see D. Mattingly (ed.), The Archaeology of the Fazzān Vol. 1: Synthesis (2003), pp. 76–90, 346–62; Ptolemy, Geography 1. 10.

  13 Tacitus, Hist. 4. 50, Ptolemy, Geog. 1. 8.

  14 Mattingly (2003), pp. 85, 88–9, 355–62.

  15 In general see Wells (2013), passim, and (1999), pp. 224–58, M. Todd, The Early Germans (2nd edn, 2004), pp. 84–102; on bog finds see J. Ilkjaer, ‘Danish war booty sacrifices’, in B. Stoorgard & L. Thomsen (eds), The Spoils of Victory. The North in the Shadow of the Roman Empire (2003), pp. 44–65.

  16 Tacitus, Ann. 13. 57; X. Jensen, L. Jørgensen & U. Hansen, ‘The Germanic army: warriors, soldiers and officers’, in Stoorgard & Thomsen (2003), pp. 310–28.

  17 Tacitus, Germania 5, with Todd (2004), pp. 98–102; F. Hunter, ‘Iron age hoarding in Scotland and northern Britain’, in A. Gwilt & C. Haselgrove (eds), Reconstructing Iron Age Societies (1997), pp. 108–33.

  18 See D. Harding, The Iron Age in Northern Britain. Celts, Romans, Natives and Invaders (2004), pp. 179–99, F. Hunter, ‘Roman and native in Scotland: new approaches’, JRA 14 (2001), pp. 289–309 and ‘The lives of Roman objects beyond the frontier’, in Wells (2013), pp. 15–28; Friensted, see C. Schmidt, ‘Just recycled? New light on the Roman imports at the “central farmstead” of Fienstedt (central Germany)’, in Wells (2013), pp. 57–70.

  19 Todd (2004), p. 9
1.

  20 Todd (2004), pp. 94–5.

  21 Digest 49. 15. 6, RIB 2174–8 with E. Birley, ‘Marcus Cocceius Firmus: an epigraphic study’, in E. Birley (ed.), Roman Britain and the Roman Army. Collected papers (1953), pp. 87–103; on raiding for slaves to sell to the Romans see B. Cunliffe, Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction (1988), pp. 171–89.

  22 Tacitus, Ann. 2. 52, 11. 16–17, with Todd (2004), pp. 84–7.

  23 Wells (1999), pp. 246–56, Todd (2004), pp. 62–80, 97–8.

  24 A. Jørgensen, ‘Fortifications and the control of land and sea traffic in the Pre- Roman and Roman Iron Age’, in Stoorgard & Thomsen (2003), pp. 194–209; Tacitus, Ann. 2. 19.

  25 For a fuller narrative of this later period there is A. Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West (= How Rome Fell) (2009).

  26 Drinkwater (2007), pp. 117–44 on society and population.

  27 AE 1993, 1231; see R. MacMullen, Enemies of the Roman Order (1966), pp. 196–234 and Roman Government’s Response to Crisis AD 235–337 (1976).

  CONCLUSION – PEACE AND WAR

  1 Caesar, BG 8. 44.

  2 G. de la Bédoyère review of D. Mattingly, An Imperial Possession. Britain in the Roman Empire 54 BC–AD 409 (2006), in History Today (August 2006), p. 62, with reply in D. Mattingly, Imperialism, Power, and Identity. Experiencing the Roman Empire (2011), p. 274, fn. 3.

  INDEX

  accensus, 114

  Acco, execution of, 82, 198

  Achaean League, 46

  Actium, battle of, 157, 169, 180, 279

  actors, at funerals, 28

  Acts of the Apostles, 303–4

  Acts of the Pagan Martyrs, 243

  Adherbal, 100

  Adramyttium, 101

  Aedui, 66–7, 69, 71–2, 74–5, 78–82, 84–6, 88–9, 94, 205–9

  Aelius Aristides, 270, 313

  Aequi, 23

  Agricola, Cnaeus Julius, 2, 283, 285, 290, 292, 295–6, 318, 359

  Agrippa, 170

  ala Gallorum Indiana, 208

  ala I Pannioniorum, 322

  ala Sebastinorum, 229

  Alamanni, 372, 404

  Alan nomads, 333–4

  Albinus, Aulus Postumius, 47

  Alesia, battle of, 205

  Alexander the Great, 11, 31–2, 54–5, 96, 136, 182, 184, 215, 219, 222, 337, 392

  Alexandria, 143, 213, 225, 231, 234–5, 243–4, 252, 332

  and Boukoloi rebellion, 218–19

  Jewish deputation to Rome, 289

  Roman visitor lynched, 141

  Allobroges, 71

  Alps, Roman occupation of, 170, 172

  Amastris, 262, 302

  amber, 392–3

  amicitia, 67

  Amisus, 250

  Antioch, 107, 234, 332, 403

  Antiochus III (the Great), King, 32, 48, 137

  Antiochus IV Epiphanes, King, 96, 139

  anti-Semitism, 215, 222, 243

  Antonine Wall, 183, 357

  Antoninus, Herennius, 271

  Antoninus Pius, Emperor, 183, 341

  Apaches, 371

  Apamea, 257–8

  Appian, 178, 252, 285, 313

  Appian Way, 153

  Appius Claudius Pulcher, 117, 121, 128–31, 147

  Apuleius, The Golden Ass, 268–70, 302, 378

  Aquae Sextiae, 99

  aqueducts, 226, 261–3, 280

  ara pacis Augusti, 168–9

  Arbeia, 360

  Arch of Titus, 182

  Archibios, Claudius, 364

  Arevaci, 48

  Ariobazarnes, King of Cappadocia, 110, 113, 127–8, 130, 144

  Ariovistus, 63–7, 69, 72–7, 80, 83, 88, 103, 189, 207, 404

  Armenia, 117, 331, 333, 339–40, 345

  Arminius, 201–3, 205–6, 211, 284, 296, 336, 338, 347, 400

  Arrian, 295, 320–2

  Arverni, 76, 83–6

  Ascalon, 225, 233

  Athens, 26, 54, 107, 138, 141

  Hadrian’s Arch, 281

  slave rebellion, 144

  Temple of Olympian Zeus, 96

  Atilius Primus, Quintus, 393

  Atrebates, 84, 190

  atrocity, Roman attitude to, 44, 50–1, 195, 409–12, 414

  Atticus, 126

  Atuatuca, 373

  Augusta Vindelicum, 373, 404, 406

  Augustudunum, 208–9

  Augustus, Emperor

  advice to Tiberius, 173, 175

  bans marriage in army, 192, 390

  calendar begins on his birthday, 281

  cities named after, 281

  comes to power, 35, 163, 166–75, 179–80, 292

  compared with Tiberius, 180–1

  confirms Euphrates border, 332

  creates vigiles, 264

  denigrates Pompey, 238

  establishes military treasury, 323

  German bodyguard, 334

  ignores Britain, 171–2

  issues mandata to proconsuls, 247

  and Judaea, 222–4

  and limits to expansion of empire, 337–41, 346

  and organisation of army, 170, 175, 192, 309–11, 313, 323, 330, 343

  Pax Augusta, 12–13, 185

  and provincial administration, 279–81

  receives ambassadors, 279

  receives exiled British rulers, 184, 188

  revives decimation, 349

  and peace after civil war, 168–9, 185

  sense of geography, 358

  statues and portraits, 280

  and suppression of druidic religion, 193

  his titles, 163, 250

  travels widely, 180, 255, 279

  and veterans’ colonies, 282

  aurochs, 200

  Auzea, 353

  Babylon, Jewish population, 215, 223, 332

  Baetica, 168, 290–1, 294–6

  Balanos, 94

  Balkans, campaigns in, 170, 172–3, 311

  bandits (and pirates)

  in fiction, 268–70

  Jewish, 235, 237–44

  and policing, 266–75

  ‘Social Bandit’ concept 272–3 see also piracy

  Bar Kochba, 214, 241

  Barabbas, 239, 306

  ‘barbarians’

  and Roman frontiers, 344–5

  and war-making, 55–6

  Bastarnae, 337, 345

  Batanaea, 234

  Batavian rebellion, 201, 210, 212

  Bede, 355

  Belgic tribes, 78, 86, 88

  Bellovaci, 78

  beneficiarii, 268

  Berenike, 391

  Bibracte, 71, 85, 208

  Bibulus, Marcus Calpurnius, 109, 117–19, 129

  Bithynia, 110, 136, 294–5

  Bithynia and Pontus province, 245–65

  Blaesus, Quintus Junius, 351, 353

  Boer War, 352

  bog finds, 395

  Boii, 209, 218

  Book of Deuteronomy, 240

  Boudicca, 192, 195, 197–8, 203, 205–6, 211, 213, 292, 353, 412–13

  flogged and daughters raped, 192, 412

  Boukoloi, 217, 219

  Britain

  army numbers in, 187, 311

  casualties of invasions, 411–12

  Claudius invades, 173–4, 179, 181, 184, 187–90

  deforestation, 286

  disarming of population, 190–1

  and druidic religion, 192–3

  Iceni rebellion, 190–8, 204–6, 211

  and imperial administration, 283–6, 290, 292

  imports of Roman goods, 397–8

  invasions, 80, 87–90, 171–4, 178–9, 181–4, 187–98, 311, 366, 411–12

  legates and, 342–3

  organised frontiers, 357

  peace in lowland Britain, 210, 353, 413

  Phoenicians visit, 92

  Postumus rules in, 406

  produces no senators, 297

  rebellions, 187–98, 204–6, 211

  Silurian ambush, 379–80

  and trade, 89�
��90, 189

  villas and other buildings, 298–9

  British Empire, 11

  Brundisium, 107

  Brutus, Marcus Junius, 126–9, 157, 161–2, 167

  Burebista, King of Dacia, 70, 336

  Caelius Rufus, 126

  Caesarea, 213, 222, 224–5, 228, 231–3, 281, 305–6

  Caledonian tribes, 2, 402

  calendars, 199, 207, 281, 290

  Caligula, Emperor, 179, 181, 188, 289, 353

  and Judaea, 224–6, 231

  Calpurnia (Pliny’s wife), 255

  Camulodunum, 188–9, 192–4, 204, 282

  Candace, Queen of Ethiopia, 338

  cannibalism, allegations of, 214, 218

  Capitoline Hill, 25, 209

  Cappadocia, 110, 113, 117, 127, 144, 251, 280, 311, 320, 333, 339–40

  Capri, 180

  Capua, 21

  Caracalla, Emperor, 297, 402

  Caractacus, 189–90

  Carlisle, 322, 366

  Carnutes, 81–3

  Carrhae, battle of, 113, 331, 402

  Carteia, 98

  Carthage, 31–3, 40, 46, 55, 58, 90

  founded by Phoenicians, 31, 92

  razing of, 95

  Roman colony at, 98–9

  treaty with Rome, 22–3, 92–3

  Cassius (Caesar’s assassin), 157, 161–2

  Cassius, Caius Avidius, 218, 292–3

  catapults, 318

  Cato the Elder, 59–60

  Cato the Younger, 129

  cattle, German, 200, 370

  cattle-raiding, 370–1, 379, 389

  Catuarus, Tiberius Claudius, 190, 197

  Catullus 109

  Catuvellauni, 188–90, 194

  Cauca, 48

  Celer, Antonius, 377

  Celtiberians, 39–41, 48, 61

  Celtic language, 75

  censuses, 207, 310

  centurions, 38, 268, 326–7

  negotiate with Parthians, 341

  Chaeronea, 135–6

  chariot races, 282, 298

  chariots, 116

  Charlemagne, 1

  Chatti, 335, 380–1, 383

  Cheirisophos, 398

  Chersonesus, 345

  Cherusci, 201, 206, 336, 381, 383, 400

  China, 395

  Christians, 259–60, 304–5

  Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 102, 162, 238, 290, 313, 331

  comments on Britain, 90

  comments on Cleopatra, 142

  comments on Gaul, 99

  comments on Illyrian war, 95

  and decline of Roman power, 149–52

 

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