18 Tabulae Vindolandenses II 154.
19 RMR 100, and see discussion in F. Lepper & S. Frere, Trajan’s Column (1988), pp. 244–59; on dispersal of units see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 22–8.
20 On forts and their function see M. Bishop, ‘Praesidium: social, military, and logistical aspects of the Roman army’s provincial distribution during the early Principate’, in A. Goldsworthy & I. Haynes (eds), The Roman Army as a Community. JRA Supplementary Series 34 (1999), pp. 111–18 and B. Dobson, ‘The rôle of the fort’, in W. Hanson (ed.), The Army and the Frontiers. JRA Supplementary Series 74 (2009), pp. 25–32; on Chester see T. Strickland, ‘What kind of community existed at Chester during the hiatus of the 2nd c.?’, in Goldsworthy & Haynes (1999), pp. 105–9.
21 RMR 10, Florida Ostraka 3, 5.
22 P. Bidwell, ‘Systems of obstacles on Hadrian’s wall and their relationship to the turrets’, in A. Moirillo, N. Hanel & E. Martín, Limes XX: Estudios sobre la frontera romana. Roman Frontier Studies. Anejos de Gladius 13 Vol. 3 (2009), pp. 1119–24.
23 N. Hodgson, ‘Gates and passages across the frontiers: the use of openings through the barriers of Britain, Germany and Raetia’, in Visy (2005), pp. 183–7; centurio regionarius Tab. Vind. II 250. 8, centurions attending tribal councils, Dio 73. 2. 4.
24 CIL 8. 2495.
25 T. Kinsella, The Táin. From the Irish Epic Táin Bó Cuailnge (1969), p. 52; Homer, Odyssey 11. 397–403 (Loeb translation).
26 The expressions are used by E. Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century AD to the Third (1976). His usage is subtle and does not imply a sharp divide between these levels of warfare, but this seems assumed by many who have used his works, including his critics; accepting raiding, but seeing this as not a threat, see J. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213–496 (2007), pp. 11–42, who suggests emperors invented a ‘barbarian threat’ to satisfy their own political needs.
27 CIL 3. 3385.
28 Tacitus, Germania 5. 1–2.
29 On comites see Tacitus, Germania 13; finds of weapons and other equipment dedicated as the spoils of victory in Scandinavian bogs can be interpreted to suggest forces of 200–300 men as the followers of a war leader, see X. Jensen, L. Jørgensen & U. Hansen, ‘The Germanic army: warriors, soldiers and officers’, in B. Stoorgard & L. Thomsen (eds), The Spoils of Victory. The North in the Shadow of the Roman Empire (2003), pp. 310–28.
30 Caesar, BG 6. 34–5, 41; fourth century, Ammianus Marcellinus 17. 10. 5–6, 18. 2. 2–3, 7–8; Hannibal, see Livy 22. 13. 5–9.
31 Tacitus, Germania 41 (Loeb translation); Dio 72. 11. 2–3.
32 Jerusalemite Talmud, Erubin 4, p. 21, col. 4, Babylonian Talmud, tractate Yebamoth 48 and see discussion in M. Gichon, ‘Life on the borders reflected in rabbinical sources’, in A. Morillo, N. Hanl & E. Martín (eds), Limes XX. Estudios Sobre La Frontera Romana Roman Frontier Studies Vol. 1 (2009), pp. 113–18.
33 Tacitus, Ann. 13. 54. 1, Hist. 1. 79, Ammianus Marcellinus 31. 10.
34 Caesar, BG 8. 3, Cicero, Verrines 2. 4. 95, 96, Babylonian Talmud, Baba Qama 83a.
35 H. Cuvigny, Ostraca de Krokodilô (2005), p. 87, with V. Maxfield, ‘Ostraca and the Roman army in the eastern desert’, in J. Wilkes (ed.), Documenting the Roman Army. Essays in Honour of Margaret Roxan (2003), pp. 153–73, esp. 166–7.
36 Observation of nomads and others by military outposts in North Africa, see R. Marichal, Les Ostraca du Bu Njem (1979), pp. 436–52; villa at Regensburg-Harting, Drinkwater (2007) pp. 78–9; Apuleius, Metamorphoses 8. 16–17.
37 Caesar, BG 6. 34 (Loeb translation).
38 Tacitus, Ann. 12. 27 for quote (Loeb translation), 12. 39 for the Silures, Ammianus Marcellinus 27. 1–2.
39 M. Todd in A. Bowman, P. Garnsey & A. Cameron, The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 12 (Second Edition): The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337 (2005), p. 442; Ammianus Marcellinus 19. 6. 2.
40 Tacitus, Ann. 12. 27–8.
41 RIB 1142.
42 D. Potter, ‘Empty areas and Roman frontier policy’, American Journal of Philology 113 (1992), pp. 269–74.
43 Tacitus, Ann. 12. 31, Agricola 18.
CHAPTER XIV – BEYOND THE PAX ROMANA
1 Tacitus, Agricola 24. 1–2 (Loeb translation).
2 On maps and boundaries, note the sensible comments in E. Wheeler, ‘Methodological limits and the mirage of Roman Strategy. Parts 1 & 2’, The Journal of Military History 57 (1993), pp. 7–41 and 215–40, esp. 24–6 and 228–30.
3 Tacitus, Hist. 4. 64–65 (Loeb translation).
4 H. Cuvigny, Ostraca de Krokodilô (2005), p. 252, with translation and discussion in D. Nappo & A. Zerbini, ‘Trade and taxation in the Egyptian desert’, in O. Hekster & T. Kaizer (eds), Frontiers in the Roman World. Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Durham, 16–19 April 2009) (2011), pp. 61–77, esp. 72–74; see also V. Maxfield, ‘Ostraca and the Roman army in the eastern desert’, in J. Wilkes (ed.), Documenting the Roman Army. Essays in Honour of Margaret Roxan (2003), pp. 153–73, esp. 154–6, 164–7.
5 P. Wells, The Barbarians Speak. How the Conquered People Shaped Roman Europe (1999), pp. 122–47, D. Whittaker, Frontiers of the Roman Empire. A Social and Economic Study (1994), pp. 98–131.
6 In general see C. Sebastian Sommer, ‘The Roman army in SW Germany as an instrument of colonisation: the relationship of forts to military and civilian vici’, in A. Goldsworthy & I. Haynes (eds), The Roman Army as a Community. JRA Supplementary Series 34 (1999), pp. 81–93.
7 B. Shaw, ‘Fear and Loathing: the nomad menace and Roman Africa’, in B. Shaw, Rulers, Nomads, and Christians in Roman North Africa (1995), VII, pp. 25–46, esp. 42–5.
8 J. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213–496 (Caracalla to Clovis) (2007), pp. 80–116.
9 Periplus Maris Erythraei 49, translation taken from L. Casson (ed.), The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation and Commentary (1999).
10 On Roman trade with India see R. Tomber, ‘Pots, coins and trinkets in Rome’s trade with the East’, in P. Wells (ed.), Rome Beyond its Frontiers: Imports, Attitudes and Practices. JRA Supplementary Series 95 (2013), pp. 87–104, C. Whittaker, ‘Indian trade within the Roman imperial network’, in Whittaker (2004), pp. 163–80; Pliny the Elder, NH 12. 84.
11 Tacitus, Ann. 2. 62 (Loeb translation, slightly modified); Pliny the Elder, NH 37. 45; Q. Atilius Primus, see AE 1978, 635; on Marcomani and Quadi see L. Pitts, ‘Relations between Rome and the German “kings” on the Middle Danube in the first to fourth centuries AD’, JRS 79 (1989), pp. 45–58, esp. 46–51.
12 In general see D. Mattingly (ed.), The Archaeology of the Fazzān Vol. 1: Synthesis (2003), pp. 76–90, 346–62; Ptolemy, Geography 1. 10.
13 Tacitus, Hist. 4. 50, Ptolemy, Geog. 1. 8.
14 Mattingly (2003), pp. 85, 88–9, 355–62.
15 In general see Wells (2013), passim, and (1999), pp. 224–58, M. Todd, The Early Germans (2nd edn, 2004), pp. 84–102; on bog finds see J. Ilkjaer, ‘Danish war booty sacrifices’, in B. Stoorgard & L. Thomsen (eds), The Spoils of Victory. The North in the Shadow of the Roman Empire (2003), pp. 44–65.
16 Tacitus, Ann. 13. 57; X. Jensen, L. Jørgensen & U. Hansen, ‘The Germanic army: warriors, soldiers and officers’, in Stoorgard & Thomsen (2003), pp. 310–28.
17 Tacitus, Germania 5, with Todd (2004), pp. 98–102; F. Hunter, ‘Iron age hoarding in Scotland and northern Britain’, in A. Gwilt & C. Haselgrove (eds), Reconstructing Iron Age Societies (1997), pp. 108–33.
18 See D. Harding, The Iron Age in Northern Britain. Celts, Romans, Natives and Invaders (2004), pp. 179–99, F. Hunter, ‘Roman and native in Scotland: new approaches’, JRA 14 (2001), pp. 289–309 and ‘The lives of Roman objects beyond the frontier’, in Wells (2013), pp. 15–28; Friensted, see C. Schmidt, ‘Just recycled? New light on the Roman imports at the “central farmstead” of Fienstedt (central Germany)’, in Wells (2013), pp. 57–70.
19 Todd (2004), p. 9
1.
20 Todd (2004), pp. 94–5.
21 Digest 49. 15. 6, RIB 2174–8 with E. Birley, ‘Marcus Cocceius Firmus: an epigraphic study’, in E. Birley (ed.), Roman Britain and the Roman Army. Collected papers (1953), pp. 87–103; on raiding for slaves to sell to the Romans see B. Cunliffe, Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction (1988), pp. 171–89.
22 Tacitus, Ann. 2. 52, 11. 16–17, with Todd (2004), pp. 84–7.
23 Wells (1999), pp. 246–56, Todd (2004), pp. 62–80, 97–8.
24 A. Jørgensen, ‘Fortifications and the control of land and sea traffic in the Pre- Roman and Roman Iron Age’, in Stoorgard & Thomsen (2003), pp. 194–209; Tacitus, Ann. 2. 19.
25 For a fuller narrative of this later period there is A. Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West (= How Rome Fell) (2009).
26 Drinkwater (2007), pp. 117–44 on society and population.
27 AE 1993, 1231; see R. MacMullen, Enemies of the Roman Order (1966), pp. 196–234 and Roman Government’s Response to Crisis AD 235–337 (1976).
CONCLUSION – PEACE AND WAR
1 Caesar, BG 8. 44.
2 G. de la Bédoyère review of D. Mattingly, An Imperial Possession. Britain in the Roman Empire 54 BC–AD 409 (2006), in History Today (August 2006), p. 62, with reply in D. Mattingly, Imperialism, Power, and Identity. Experiencing the Roman Empire (2011), p. 274, fn. 3.
INDEX
accensus, 114
Acco, execution of, 82, 198
Achaean League, 46
Actium, battle of, 157, 169, 180, 279
actors, at funerals, 28
Acts of the Apostles, 303–4
Acts of the Pagan Martyrs, 243
Adherbal, 100
Adramyttium, 101
Aedui, 66–7, 69, 71–2, 74–5, 78–82, 84–6, 88–9, 94, 205–9
Aelius Aristides, 270, 313
Aequi, 23
Agricola, Cnaeus Julius, 2, 283, 285, 290, 292, 295–6, 318, 359
Agrippa, 170
ala Gallorum Indiana, 208
ala I Pannioniorum, 322
ala Sebastinorum, 229
Alamanni, 372, 404
Alan nomads, 333–4
Albinus, Aulus Postumius, 47
Alesia, battle of, 205
Alexander the Great, 11, 31–2, 54–5, 96, 136, 182, 184, 215, 219, 222, 337, 392
Alexandria, 143, 213, 225, 231, 234–5, 243–4, 252, 332
and Boukoloi rebellion, 218–19
Jewish deputation to Rome, 289
Roman visitor lynched, 141
Allobroges, 71
Alps, Roman occupation of, 170, 172
Amastris, 262, 302
amber, 392–3
amicitia, 67
Amisus, 250
Antioch, 107, 234, 332, 403
Antiochus III (the Great), King, 32, 48, 137
Antiochus IV Epiphanes, King, 96, 139
anti-Semitism, 215, 222, 243
Antonine Wall, 183, 357
Antoninus, Herennius, 271
Antoninus Pius, Emperor, 183, 341
Apaches, 371
Apamea, 257–8
Appian, 178, 252, 285, 313
Appian Way, 153
Appius Claudius Pulcher, 117, 121, 128–31, 147
Apuleius, The Golden Ass, 268–70, 302, 378
Aquae Sextiae, 99
aqueducts, 226, 261–3, 280
ara pacis Augusti, 168–9
Arbeia, 360
Arch of Titus, 182
Archibios, Claudius, 364
Arevaci, 48
Ariobazarnes, King of Cappadocia, 110, 113, 127–8, 130, 144
Ariovistus, 63–7, 69, 72–7, 80, 83, 88, 103, 189, 207, 404
Armenia, 117, 331, 333, 339–40, 345
Arminius, 201–3, 205–6, 211, 284, 296, 336, 338, 347, 400
Arrian, 295, 320–2
Arverni, 76, 83–6
Ascalon, 225, 233
Athens, 26, 54, 107, 138, 141
Hadrian’s Arch, 281
slave rebellion, 144
Temple of Olympian Zeus, 96
Atilius Primus, Quintus, 393
Atrebates, 84, 190
atrocity, Roman attitude to, 44, 50–1, 195, 409–12, 414
Atticus, 126
Atuatuca, 373
Augusta Vindelicum, 373, 404, 406
Augustudunum, 208–9
Augustus, Emperor
advice to Tiberius, 173, 175
bans marriage in army, 192, 390
calendar begins on his birthday, 281
cities named after, 281
comes to power, 35, 163, 166–75, 179–80, 292
compared with Tiberius, 180–1
confirms Euphrates border, 332
creates vigiles, 264
denigrates Pompey, 238
establishes military treasury, 323
German bodyguard, 334
ignores Britain, 171–2
issues mandata to proconsuls, 247
and Judaea, 222–4
and limits to expansion of empire, 337–41, 346
and organisation of army, 170, 175, 192, 309–11, 313, 323, 330, 343
Pax Augusta, 12–13, 185
and provincial administration, 279–81
receives ambassadors, 279
receives exiled British rulers, 184, 188
revives decimation, 349
and peace after civil war, 168–9, 185
sense of geography, 358
statues and portraits, 280
and suppression of druidic religion, 193
his titles, 163, 250
travels widely, 180, 255, 279
and veterans’ colonies, 282
aurochs, 200
Auzea, 353
Babylon, Jewish population, 215, 223, 332
Baetica, 168, 290–1, 294–6
Balanos, 94
Balkans, campaigns in, 170, 172–3, 311
bandits (and pirates)
in fiction, 268–70
Jewish, 235, 237–44
and policing, 266–75
‘Social Bandit’ concept 272–3 see also piracy
Bar Kochba, 214, 241
Barabbas, 239, 306
‘barbarians’
and Roman frontiers, 344–5
and war-making, 55–6
Bastarnae, 337, 345
Batanaea, 234
Batavian rebellion, 201, 210, 212
Bede, 355
Belgic tribes, 78, 86, 88
Bellovaci, 78
beneficiarii, 268
Berenike, 391
Bibracte, 71, 85, 208
Bibulus, Marcus Calpurnius, 109, 117–19, 129
Bithynia, 110, 136, 294–5
Bithynia and Pontus province, 245–65
Blaesus, Quintus Junius, 351, 353
Boer War, 352
bog finds, 395
Boii, 209, 218
Book of Deuteronomy, 240
Boudicca, 192, 195, 197–8, 203, 205–6, 211, 213, 292, 353, 412–13
flogged and daughters raped, 192, 412
Boukoloi, 217, 219
Britain
army numbers in, 187, 311
casualties of invasions, 411–12
Claudius invades, 173–4, 179, 181, 184, 187–90
deforestation, 286
disarming of population, 190–1
and druidic religion, 192–3
Iceni rebellion, 190–8, 204–6, 211
and imperial administration, 283–6, 290, 292
imports of Roman goods, 397–8
invasions, 80, 87–90, 171–4, 178–9, 181–4, 187–98, 311, 366, 411–12
legates and, 342–3
organised frontiers, 357
peace in lowland Britain, 210, 353, 413
Phoenicians visit, 92
Postumus rules in, 406
produces no senators, 297
rebellions, 187–98, 204–6, 211
Silurian ambush, 379–80
and trade, 89�
��90, 189
villas and other buildings, 298–9
British Empire, 11
Brundisium, 107
Brutus, Marcus Junius, 126–9, 157, 161–2, 167
Burebista, King of Dacia, 70, 336
Caelius Rufus, 126
Caesarea, 213, 222, 224–5, 228, 231–3, 281, 305–6
Caledonian tribes, 2, 402
calendars, 199, 207, 281, 290
Caligula, Emperor, 179, 181, 188, 289, 353
and Judaea, 224–6, 231
Calpurnia (Pliny’s wife), 255
Camulodunum, 188–9, 192–4, 204, 282
Candace, Queen of Ethiopia, 338
cannibalism, allegations of, 214, 218
Capitoline Hill, 25, 209
Cappadocia, 110, 113, 117, 127, 144, 251, 280, 311, 320, 333, 339–40
Capri, 180
Capua, 21
Caracalla, Emperor, 297, 402
Caractacus, 189–90
Carlisle, 322, 366
Carnutes, 81–3
Carrhae, battle of, 113, 331, 402
Carteia, 98
Carthage, 31–3, 40, 46, 55, 58, 90
founded by Phoenicians, 31, 92
razing of, 95
Roman colony at, 98–9
treaty with Rome, 22–3, 92–3
Cassius (Caesar’s assassin), 157, 161–2
Cassius, Caius Avidius, 218, 292–3
catapults, 318
Cato the Elder, 59–60
Cato the Younger, 129
cattle, German, 200, 370
cattle-raiding, 370–1, 379, 389
Catuarus, Tiberius Claudius, 190, 197
Catullus 109
Catuvellauni, 188–90, 194
Cauca, 48
Celer, Antonius, 377
Celtiberians, 39–41, 48, 61
Celtic language, 75
censuses, 207, 310
centurions, 38, 268, 326–7
negotiate with Parthians, 341
Chaeronea, 135–6
chariot races, 282, 298
chariots, 116
Charlemagne, 1
Chatti, 335, 380–1, 383
Cheirisophos, 398
Chersonesus, 345
Cherusci, 201, 206, 336, 381, 383, 400
China, 395
Christians, 259–60, 304–5
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 102, 162, 238, 290, 313, 331
comments on Britain, 90
comments on Cleopatra, 142
comments on Gaul, 99
comments on Illyrian war, 95
and decline of Roman power, 149–52
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