by Daisy Dunn
“Well,” replied Axius, “what is there to prevent me from keeping these at my villa at Reate? You don’t think that honey is Sicilian if it is produced on Seius’s place, and Corsican if it is produced at Reate? And that if mast which has to be bought feeds a boar on his place it makes him fat, while that which is had for nothing on my place makes him thin?”
Whereupon Appius remarked: “Merula did not say that you could not have husbandry like Seius’s on your place; but I have, with my own eyes, seen that you have not. For there are two kinds of pasturing: one in the fields, which includes cattle-raising, and the other around the farmstead, which includes chickens, pigeons, bees, and the like, which usually feed in the steading; the Carthaginian Mago, Cassius Dionysius, and other writers have left in their books remarks on them, but scattered and unsystematic. These Seius seems to have read, and as a result he gets more revenue from such pasturing out of one villa than others receive from a whole farm.”
“You are quite right,” said Merula; “for I have seen there large flocks of geese, chickens, pigeons, cranes, and peafowl, not to speak of numbers of dormice, fish, boars, and other game. His book-keeper, a freedman who waited on Varro and used to entertain me when his patron was away from home, told me that he received, because of such husbandry, more than 50,000 sesterces from the villa every year.”
When Axius expressed his surprise, I remarked to him: “Doubtless you know my maternal aunt’s place in the Sabine country, at the twenty-fourth milestone from Rome on the Via Salaria?”
“Of course,” he replied; “it is my custom to break the journey there at noon in summer, when I am on my way to Reate from the city, and to camp there at night in winter when I am on my way from there to town.”
“Well, from the aviary alone which is in that villa, I happen to know that there were sold 5,000 fieldfares, for three denarii apiece, so that that department of the villa in that year brought in sixty thousand sesterces—twice as much as your farm of 200 iugera at Reate brings in.”
“What? Sixty?” exclaimed Axius, “Sixty? Sixty? You are joking!” “Sixty,” I repeated. “But to reach such a haul as that you will need a public banquet or somebody’s triumph, such as that of Metellus Scipio at that time, or the club dinners which are now so countless that they make the price of provisions go soaring. If you can’t look for this sum in all other years, your aviary, I hope, will not go bankrupt on you; and if fashions continue as they now are, it will happen only rarely that you miss your reckoning. For how rarely is there a year in which you do not see a banquet or a triumph, or when the clubs do not feast?”
“Why,” said he, “in this time of luxury it may fairly be said that there is a banquet every day within the gates of Rome. Was it not Lucius Abuccius, who is, as you know, an unusually learned man (his writings are quite in the manner of Lucilius), who used to remark likewise that his estate near Alba was always beaten in feeding by his steading? For his land brought in less than 10,000, and his steading more than 20,000 sesterces. He also claimed that if he had got a villa near the sea, where he wanted one, he would take in more than 100,000 from the villa. Come, did not Marcus Cato, when he took over the guardianship of Lucullus recently, sell the fish from his ponds for 40,000 sesterces?” “My dear Merula,” said Axius, “take me, I beg, as your pupil in this villa-feeding.”
There continues a detailed discussion of aviaries, hare-warrens and fish ponds.
While we were thus conversing, a shouting arose in the Campus. We old hands at politics were not surprised at this occurrence, as we knew how excited an election crowd could become, but still we wanted to know what it meant; thereupon Pantuleius Parra comes to us, and tells us that a man had been caught, while they were sorting the ballots in the office, in the act of casting ballots into the ballot-box; and that he had been dragged off to the consul by the supporters of the other candidates. Pavo arose, as it was the watcher for his candidate who was reported to have been arrested.
“You may speak freely about peafowl,” said Axius, “since Fircellius has gone; if you should say anything out of the way about them, he would perhaps have a bone to pick with you for the credit of the family.”
To whom Merula said: “As to peafowl, it is within our memory that flocks of them began to be kept and sold at a high price. From them Marcus Aufidius Lurco is said to receive an income of more than 60,000 sesterces a year. There should be somewhat fewer males than females if you have an eye to the financial returns; but the opposite if you look at the pleasure, for the male is handsomer. They should be pastured in flocks in the fields. Across the water they are said to be reared in the islands—on Samos, in the grove of Juno, and likewise in Marcus Piso’s island of Planasia. For the forming of a flock they are to be secured when they are young and of good appearance; for nature has awarded the palm of beauty to this fowl over all winged things. The hens are not suited for breeding under two years, and are no longer suited when they get rather old. They eat any kind of grain placed before them, and especially barley; so Seius issues a modius of barley a month per head, with the exception that he feeds more freely during the breeding season, before they begin to tread. He requires of his breeder three chicks for each hen, and these, when they are grown, he sells for fifty denarii each, so that no other fowl brings in so high a revenue. He buys eggs, too, and places them under hens, and the chicks which are hatched from these he places in that domed building in which he keeps his peafowl. This building should be made of a size proportioned to the number of peafowl, and should have separate sleeping quarters, coated with smooth plaster, so that no serpent or animal can get in; it should also have an open place in front of it, to which they may go out to feed on sunny days. These birds require that both places be clean; and so their keeper should go around with a shovel and pick up the droppings and keep them, as they are useful for fertilizer and as litter for chicks. It is said that Quintus Hortensius was the first to serve these fowl; it was on the occasion of his inauguration as aedile, and the innovation was praised at that time rather by the luxurious than by those who were strict and virtuous. As his example was quickly followed by many, the price has risen to such a point that the eggs sell for five denarii each, the birds themselves sell readily for 50 each, and a flock of 100 easily brings 40,000 sesterces—in fact, Abuccius used to say that if one required three chicks to every hen, the total might amount to 60,000.
Meanwhile Appius’s bailiff comes with a message from the consul that the augurs are summoned, and he leaves the villa. But pigeons fly into the villa, and Merula, pointing to them, remarks to Axius: “If you had ever built a dove-cote you might think these were your doves, wild though they are. For in a dove-cote there are usually two species of these: one the wild, or as some call them, the rock-pigeon, which lives in turrets and gable-ends (columina) of the farmhouse—whence the name columbae—and these, because of their natural shyness, hunt for the highest peak of the roof; hence the wild pigeons chiefly hunt for the turrets, flying into them from the fields and back again, as the fancy takes them. The other species of pigeon is gentler, and being content with the food from the house usually feeds around the doorstep. This species is generally white, while the other, the wild, has no white, but is variously coloured.”
[…]
Meantime Pavo returns to us and says: “If you wish to weigh anchor, the ballots have been cast and the casting of lots for the tribes is going on; and the herald has begun to announce who has been elected aedile by each tribe.” Appius arose hurriedly, so as to congratulate his candidate at once and then go on to his home. And Merula remarked: “I’ll give you the third act of the husbandry of the steading later, Axius.”
[…]
Then a noise on the right, and our candidate, as aedile-elect, came into the villa wearing the broad stripe. We approach and congratulate him and escort him to the Capitoline.
SPARTACUS
Civil Wars
Appian
Translated by John Davies, 1679
Appian
(c. AD 95–c. 165) was born in Alexandria in Egypt and became a lawyer as well as an historian in Rome. His bracing history of Rome is sadly now incomplete. Nonetheless, his seventeenth-century translator John Davies commended his readers to admire ‘the excellent method and contrivance of Appian, his composure being such, that though so many of his Books are lost, yet the want of them renders not those left imperfect (as Livy, or other Historians are by so much as is left of them) but by taking the whole Affairs of every Country from the first dealings the Romans had with them, till such time as they were reduced to a Roman Province, he makes every Book independant, [sic] and become a perfect History…’ Davies’s rendering of Appian’s account of the slave revolt led by Spartacus in 73 BC is especially masterly.
About the same time Spartacus a Thracian by Nation, who had formerly born Arms in the Roman Militia, and was now a Captive in Capua to serve as a Gladiator, persuaded about seventy of his Comrades to fight rather for their own liberty, than to please the spectators, and breaking Prison he gave them such Arms as he took from Passengers, and went and posted himself on Mount Vesuvius. Store of fugitive Slaves, and likewise some free people of the Country flocking to him upon the news of his Revolt, he received them, and began to make Incursions and Robberies in the Neighbouring Places, he made Oenomaus and Crixus two Gladiators his Lieutenants, and because he equally divided the Prey among his Companions, in a short time he gathered together so great Forces, that first Varinius Glaber and then P. Valerius being sent against him not with formed Bodies, but such men as they could get together as they passed along, were beaten: for the Roman People esteemed these only a concourse of Thieves, and not worth the name of a War. Spartacus in the Fight took Varinius’s Horse, and there mist little but that the Gladiator had taken the Pretor. After these Victories such multitudes came in to him, that he soon beheld seventy thousand Men under his Command. He then set himself to provide Arms, and to make great Preparations; so that the Consuls were sent against him with two Legions, one of which engaging with Crixus near Mount Gorganus, the Gladiator was killed with thirty thousand of his Men, scarce a third part of his Army escaping: Spartacus having taken his March by the Aventine to gain the Alpes, and thence pass into Gaul, one of the Consuls got before him to stop his passage, and the other Consul followed him at the Heels. He fell upon them one after the other, and made them give ground, and indeed put them to flight, in which the Vanquisher having taken three hundred Roman Prisoners, he cut their Throats, and offered them in Sacrifice to Crixus’s Ghost, his forces being afterwards swelled to sixscore thousand Men, he marched directly towards the City, and to make the quicker way, caused all the Baggages to be burnt, his Prisoners murdered, and his Beasts of Loading slain. Upon the way several Runaways offered themselves to him, but he would accept of none. And when the Consuls to stop his March, engaged him once more in the Country of Picene, he defeated them with a great loss of their Men. However, he changed his design of going to the City, because he found himself too weak, his Army not being sufficiently furnished with all things necessary for War: for he was not aided by any Commonalty; and all his forces were composed of fugitive Slaves and Runnagate People. He went therefore and seised upon the Mountains, and likewise of the City of Turine, and caused Proclamation to be made, that he forbid all sorts of Merchants to bring any Gold or Silver into the Camp, and all Soldiers to keep any: so with what they had they bought Iron and Copper, without doing any wrong to those which brought it; and by this means they got together abundance of Materials, with which they fixed themselves up Arms of all sorts. Mean while they went dayly out a skirmishing, and having once more encountred the Romans, gained the Victory, together with a good store of Spoil and Booty. It was now three years that this formidable War had lasted, which only for having contemned it at first, because of the meanness of the Authors of it, was so prodigiously augmented, and withal the ancient Roman Valour was so bastardised, that when the Assembly was held for naming of Praetors, there was none found that demanded that Dignity, till Licinius Crassus a man of Quality, and mighty rich, resolved to accept of the Pretorship offered; and with six other Legions marched against Spartacus, there were joyned to him the other two Legions which the Consuls had, but he first decimated them as a punishment of those shameful losses they had suffered: though some say, that going to assault the Enemies with all the Legions together, and being beaten by their fault, he then decimated them without considering the great number of Men, amounting to no less than four thousand by which he weakened his Army. However it were, after having managed so his Affairs, that his own men were more afraid of him, than of the Enemy: ten thousand of Spartacus’s Army being encamped severally, he fell suddenly upon them, and made so great a slaughter, that scarce a third part escaped into the Gross, commanded by their Captain. Soon after he undertook Spartacus himself, defeated him, and drove him to the Sea side, where, as he laid a design to get over into Sicily, to hinder him, he shut him up with a Circumvallation he drew round his Camp, with a Ditch and Palisade. Spartacus seeing himself invested, endeavoured to break his way out, to get into the Country of the Samnites, but Crassus made him turn in again, after having killed him six thousand Men in a Morning, and as many in the Evening, with the loss of only three of his own, and seven wounded, so much did the recent memory of their chastisement contribute to the Victory. After which Spartacus, who expected some Horse which were to come to him from elsewhere, durst no more engage with all his Forces, but contented himself to incommode the Besiegers with frequent sallies, which he made sometimes on one side, and sometimes on another, and with throwing flaming Faggots into the Ditch, to burn the Palisade, and hinder the Work. Mean while he caused one of the Roman Prisoners to be hanged up in the middle of the Place between his Camp and Crassus’s Trenches, to let his men know what they were to trust to, if they did not gain the Victory. The news of this cruelty coming to the City, moved their spirits to indignation, that a War should last so long against Gladiators. So that judging the Remains of it were not despiseable, they gave order to Pompey, newly returned from Spain, to go thither. But Crassus fearing lest Pompey should carry away all the Glory of the end of this War, did all that he could possible to draw Spartacus quickly to a Fight. On the other side, Spartacus, who thought it not convenient to stay Pompey’s coming, lent to demand peace from Crassus, which being refused him as a thing unworthy the Grandeur of Rome, and some Horse being come to him, he resolved to try the fortune of a Battel, and having with all his Army forced the Circumvallation, he took his way towards Brundusium, pursued by Crassus: but when he understood that Lucullus returning to Rome after his Victory against Mithridates, was landed, he lost all hopes of Retreat, and drew his Forces (which were yet numerous) into Battalia. The Fight was very fierce, Crassus having to deal with so many thousand desperate people, till such time as Spartacus wounded in the Thigh with a Javelin; fell upon his Knees, where still he defended himself for a while, covered with his Buckler, but at last was killed with all that were fighting about him, all the rest were presently routed, and there was so great a Butchery, that the dead could hardly be counted, nor could they find the body of Spartacus. The Romans lost scarce a thousand men. Those that remained of Spartacus’s Men fled to the Mountains, whither Crassus having followed them, to give the last stroke to the Victory, they formed of what were left forty Battalions, and in that posture yet defended themselves valiantly, till they were all killed, save six thousand, who were afterwards hanged along the way between Capua and Rome. Crassus having done all this in six months, thought now he yielded nothing to Pompey in Glory, and kept his Army as well as he. They both demanded the Consulate, Crassus having passed the charge of Pretor according to Sylla’s Law, whereas Pompey had neither been Pretor nor so much as Questor, and not above four and thirty years old, but he promised the Tribunes to re-establish their ancient power. Thus these two Generals designed Consuls, did not dismiss their Armies, but kept them near the City, and shewed their reasons for it, Pompey that he waited for Metellus, who o
ught to triumph at his return from Spain; and Crassus that Pompey ought first to dismiss his Forces. Now the people seeing this difference tended to new Dissentions, and that the City was besieged by two Armies, besought the Consuls who were eminently seated in the view of all in the great place, to be reconciled, at first both the one and the other rejected their Prayers; but when the Divines told them that the City was threatened with great miseries if the Consuls did not agree, the people weeping, and casting themselves upon their Knees, renewed the same entreaties, for they had not yet lost the memory of those miseries caused by the Dissentions of Sylla and Marius. Hereupon Crassus beginning first to be moved, rises from his Seat, and goes to present his hand to his Colleague, as a sign of reconciliation: the other rising likewise went to meet him, and having joyned hands, all the people made acclamations of joy, wishing them all happiness; so that before the Assembly broke up, both Consuls dismissed their Armies. Thus was the Common-wealth happily delivered from the fear of a Civil War. And this happened sixty years after the death of Tiberius Gracchus the first mover of Seditions.
A WOMAN SCORNED?
Pro Caelio
Cicero
Translated by William Guthrie, 1741
A theatrical episode from a real defence speech delivered by the great orator, lawyer and statesman Cicero (106–43 BC) in Rome in April 56 BC. A young man named Caelius Rufus has been implicated in the assassination of an Alexandrian. First, it is alleged, Caelius borrowed gold from a woman named Clodia and used it to pay slaves to carry out the murder. Then he supposedly attempted, unsuccessfully, to silence Clodia with poison. Cicero happened to be a mentor to the defendant and an enemy of Clodia’s brother. His defence speech provided him with an opportunity to denigrate Clodia and her family. A member of the aristocracy, whose ancestors had ruled Rome for centuries, Clodia was married to a senator named Metellus Celer until he died unexpectedly in 59 BC. Cicero capitalises on the rumours surrounding her private life. Not only did she commit incest with her brother, he suggests, but she murdered her husband, just as Clytemnestra murdered Agamemnon (see Story 14). Cicero’s trick is to present Clodia as little more than a common prostitute (a ‘quadrans’ was the price of entry to the cheap baths). Like Medea, who took vengeance upon her lover Jason when he spurned her (see Story 43), Cicero suggests, Clodia has been spurned by Caelius and is seeking revenge in court. Cicero even goes so far as to adopt the persona of Clodia’s illustrious ancestor Appius Claudius Caecus.