A F T E R W O R D
complacent about fresh Islamic advances in the Mediterranean world. Urban succeeded in this aim: it is too often forgotten both by Western historians and by Byzantinists that the victories of the First Crusade in Anatolia enabled the Comneni to recover Western Asia Minor, and that this in turn allowed Byzantium to remain an important power in the twelfth century.
Two of the essays in this volume deal with the crusading movement and Byzantium. Western opinion was very divided about the response of the Byzantines to the crusade: some observers considered that although the Byzantines had derived considerable benefits from the First Crusade, they had failed to give it the wholehearted support which, as fellow Christians, they should have done; others were favourably impressed by the high civilisation and the military capacity and organisation of the Byzantine world. These different reactions are considered by Léan Ní Chléirigh, who demonstrates that these attitudes did not grow up during the twelfth century, but were to be found among Western European crusade chroniclers from the start.
Chris Wright’s essay covers the whole span of Western–Byzantine relations from 1095 to 1453. This is a very carefully nuanced piece of work, considering the impact of the crusades on the ideology of the Byzantine state. The emperors, who had ruled in Constantinople in unbroken succession from Constantine the Great, claimed to be the sole divinely sanctioned secular power in the world. In theory all men should acknowledge their rule as vice-gerents of God in temporal affairs: if non-Christians failed to do so, that was a consequence of original sin which prevented them from understanding God’s design for the world; but Christians who failed to acknowledge the emperor’s unique authority showed a deliberate disregard of God’s will. Although the emperors never modified their claims, they were manifestly at variance with political reality after 1204, when Byzantine power gradually declined until the empire became a city-state with control over a few outposts, such as Mistra. But Chris Wright argues that the crusade movement caused Byzantium to be marginalised right from the start, by having as its goal the liberation of Jerusalem, an objective which the Byzantines did not share, and that the Fourth Crusade exacerbated but did not cause that marginalisation. This is an analysis that deserves very serious consideration.
Byzantium, the West and Islamic society all shared a common intellectual heritage, deriving from classical Greece. Although it is undoubtedly true that the Byzantine and Islamic civilisations had been far more advanced than that of Western Christendom in the centuries before 1100, that was no longer the case in the age of the crusades, which coincided with the complex movement that is often called the twelfth-century Renaissance. Western civilisation began to compete on equal terms with those of its Byzantine and Islamic neighbours and by the end of the thirteenth century it had become more dynamic than either of them. Some late nineteenth-century scholars who wrote about the age of the crusades, such as Stanley Lane-Poole, were so impressed by the civilisation of medieval Islam that they tended automatically to disparage Western intellectual achievements, and their legacy still underlies some common assumptions about 261
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certain aspects of society in the crusader states. It is a widely held opinion, for example, that Islamic medicine was superior to Frankish medical knowledge in twelfth-century Syria. Susan B. Edgington, following in the pioneering footsteps of Piers Mitchell, has critically examined the evidence for this assumption in her essay. She rightly draws attention to the fact that the revival of medical studies in Western Europe antedates the crusades by almost a generation, through the work of Constantine the African at Monte Cassino from 1077, whose translations were used in the schools of Salerno. She also shows that from the earliest years of Frankish settlement in the Levant, Western doctors were not necessarily inferior in knowledge and clinical treatment to their Islamic colleagues. ‘A study of the crusading armies suggests that they brought with them surgeons who were well up to the demands of battlefield surgery,’ she comments.
One of the most complex and controversial areas of study in the society of the Latin East is that of ecclesiastical art and architecture. How far was the Gothic style which came to dominate Western ecclesiastical architecture in the central Middle Ages influenced by developments which originated in the crusader states?
How far was Frankish architecture and sculpture in the Levant the work of indigenous craftsmen trained in the Western tradition? How far was it dependent on skilled masons and sculptors from Western Europe? Jürgen Krüger considers issues of this kind in his essay, with special reference to the church of the Holy Sepulchre, the spiritual focus of the crusading movement, which had a wide influence throughout the whole of Latin Christendom during the twelfth century.
The crusading movement was an expression of the unity of the Latin West, a unity which, pace the Western Empire of the Salians and the Hohenstaufen, had no political identity. Yet the crusading participants were unable to set aside their local cultural characteristics completely. This was particularly true of the linguistic divisions which existed in crusader armies. There is no doubt that this could give rise to practical problems, as the Provençal contingent found on the First Crusade.
Alan V. Murray, in a very trenchant essay, shows that although divisions of this kind existed, they were not central to the conduct of the crusades, and that although they were mentioned by contemporary chroniclers, they did not attach any great significance to them. This changed when historians writing national histories used these sources and highlighted the contributions made to crusading by their fellow countrymen. This trend continued until comparatively recent times and, in a completely anachronistic way, rulers like Richard I of England, Louis IX
of France and Frederick Barbarossa have been treated as national heroes because of their crusading activities.
This collection of essays might justly be subtitled ‘Crusading Paradoxes’. The contributors have shown the complexity of the issues they discuss, and the reader is left with a vivid impression of the cultural diversity of the crusader states, where Christians and Muslims, Latins, Greeks and Armenians coexisted, not without tensions and violence, but for much of the time with a remarkable degree of cooperation and cultural interdependence.
262
I N D E X
Abbasid dynasty 191, 231
Anatolia 13–14, 16, 42, 56, 84–5, 169,
Abu Sulayman Dawud 44, 200
261
Acco (architecture) 223
Anazir, Prince of Mauritania 140
acculturation 245–7, 249
Angevins 11–12, 121
Acre 16–17, 20, 22, 27, 30, 44, 121,
Anglicus, Gilbertus 192–3
194–5, 242, 247
Anglo-Norman tradition 178–9
Adelaide of Sicily 88
Anna Comnena 10, 15, 61
Adelard 197
antichrist 142, 150
Adelphus 131, 133, 136–7, 142, 144–7,
Antioch 38, 60, 86, 90–2, 94–8, 115,
150–2
117, 260; Byzantine claims on 17, 58;
Ademar of Chabannes 132
as centre for scholarship 196–8;
al-’Adil 30–1, 239–40, 245–6
epidemic of 193–4; and peacemaking
Adversus nefandam . . . Saracenorum
233, 239, 241, 245; siege of 15–16,
(Peter the Venerable) 148
118, 124, 162–4, 170, 172, 175–6,
al-Afdal 34, 43
180
Ager Sanguinis see Field of Blood
Antonios IV, Patriarch 71
Agulani 14, 149
apocalyptic tradition 62, 150
Aimery of Lusignan 92, 95
apothecaries 190, 193, 205
Ajlun mountains 32–3
Apulia 118, 194
Akropolites, George 71, 74
Arabia 41, 84, 138
Alain of Lille 133
archery 12–14, 16
&nbs
p; Albert of Aachen 88, 117, 123, 176,
architecture 5–6, 216–27, 262; Holy
192–3, 199
Sepulchre 217, 220–2; Hospitallers’
Albigensian crusades (1209-29) 149
Refectory, Acco 223; S. Maria,
Aleppo 17–18, 29, 33, 36–7, 39
Muristan 224
Alexander III, Pope 58
Arda, wife of Baldwin I 88
Alexandria 42, 249
Arianism 167–8
Alexios I Komnenos 14, 56–8, 60, 70, 75,
Armenia/Armenians 17, 84–7, 92, 97,
162–6, 168–77, 180–1, 260
176, 219 see also Latin-Armenian
Alexios IV Angelos 64, 71
marriages
Alexios V Doukas 71
Artuqids 14, 38
Alfonso el Sabio of Spain 248
Asbridge, Tom 89, 91, 233
Alice of Antioch 89, 91, 96
Ascalon 42–3, 115, 165, 237, 242
Alice Rupen 95
Assassins 41
Amadeo of Savoy 66–7
Assises of Antioch 87
Amalric I of Jerusalem 18, 44, 89,
Assises of Jerusalem 201–5
199–200, 237, 239, 249
Atharib 17, 38
263
I N D E X
Augustine 138–9, 207–8, 231
92–4, 98–9; capture of Constantinople
Augustinian canons 217, 226
64–5, 69–71; collaboration with
Augustus, Philip 241–2
crusaders 66–7, 162, 175; diplomacy
Ayyubids 44, 235, 237
168–9; identities 55, 67–75; ideology
Azaz 29, 90, 246
2, 55, 60–2, 67–72, 261;
al-’Azimi 30
marginalisation 2, 55–6, 61–4;
perception of outsiders 70–2
Baghdad Caliphate 13–14, 28, 36, 41–2
Baghras 95–6
Cahen, Claude 85–6, 97
Baha al-Din 30–2, 236, 240, 245–7, 249
Cairo 42, 44
Balak, Amir 37, 89
Cairo Caliphate 13, 29, 246
Balat see Field of Blood
Calabria 118, 122, 132
Baldric of Dol 176, 177, 179, 194
Capetian dynasty 115, 121
Baldwin I of Jerusalem 32–3, 87–8, 107,
capitulation of cities 23, 241–2
112–14, 117, 123, 162–4, 174–6,
captive exchanges 23, 230–1, 235
198–9, 237, 244, 247
castles 10, 12, 18, 23, 32, 38
Baldwin II of Jerusalem 18, 29, 33,
Catharism 149
88–91, 124, 174, 260
cavalry 10–14, 16, 19–21
Baldwin III of Jerusalem 19, 89, 199, 200
ceasefires 31–2, 34, 38, 41–2, 44;
Baldwin IV of Jerusalem 200
initiation of 232–8, 233; signalling of
Le banquet des médecins (Ibn Butlan) 197
242
Banyas 33, 41
Cecilia of Bourcq 91
barbarians, redefinition of 71–2
Cecilia of France 90–1
Bartholomew of Tortosa 98
Cecilia of Rethel/Beatrice 90–1
Baybars 235, 242, 244–5
ceremonies of accession 72, 113
Beatrice, wife of Joscelin I 90–1
Chalkokondyles, Laonikos 74
Beatrice, wife of Joscelin II 91–2
Chanson de Jérusalem 189–90
Bedouin 14, 33
Chanson de Roland 140
Belvoir castle 18
chansons de geste 131, 139–43, 145,
Benevento, Battle of 12
147–8, 152, 189–90
Bethlehem 176, 221
Charles of Anjou 12, 65
Bijsterveld, Arnoud-Jan A. 245
chivalric culture 140–1
Bischoff, Bernard 144–5
Chléirigh, Léan Ní 4–5, 261
Bloch, Marc 1
choir, Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem 217, 220
Boase, T. H. 85
Choniates, Niketas 70–1
Bohemond I of Antioch 12, 15, 58, 62–3,
Christian internal conflicts 17–18, 99,
115–19, 122, 163, 166, 169, 172–6,
114–15, 117–18, 121–2
180–1, 197
Christian notions of peace 231–2
Bohemond II of Antioch 88–9, 91
Christian solidarity 62, 64, 67, 75, 176–7,
Bohemond III of Antioch 89, 92–6
179
Bohemond IV of Antioch 95–7
Christianity, rejection of 150–2
Bohemond VI of Antioch 97–8
Chronicon (Ademar) 132
Bohemond VII of Antioch 86, 98
Chronographia (Theophanes) 137
Book of the Islamic Market Inspector
Church Union 55–7, 65, 67, 73
(al-Shayzari) 205
Cilicia 17, 57, 84–5, 91–2, 94, 97–9, 114,
Bouvines, Battle of 12, 19
117 see also Armenian-Latin marriages
building materials, reuse of 219–20
class differences 118–19
Bulgarians 67, 71
Classen, Albrecht 141
Busra 37–8
clerical celibacy/marriage 167, 172–3
Byzantium 14, 17–18, 111, 132, 151,
Clermont, Council of (1095) 5, 14, 22,
165–6, 170, 180–1, 231, 260 see also
44, 56–7, 107, 110, 136, 139–40,
Western attitudes to Byzantium;
162–7, 172, 176–81
individual rulers; Armenians and 83–5,
close order fighting 12, 15–16
264
I N D E X
Cluniac corpus 137
Duqaq of Damascus 14–15
Colbert-Fontainebleau Eracles 92
Dyrrachium 163, 172–3, 176
collaboration: Byzantines/crusaders 66–7,
162, 175; medical 44;
Eastern Church 167–8, 171–4, 177, 181
Muslims/Christians 42–4
Eastern warfare 13–17
Complete Book of the Medical Art (Al-
Bar Ebroyo 198
Majusi) 191
Edessa 17, 22, 39, 88, 90, 92, 98, 132,
conciliation, gestures of 241–50
144, 164, 174, 193, 232, 234
Conrad of Montferrat 121–2, 200
Edgington, Susan 5, 262
conspiracy theory of crusading 61–2, 70–1
Egypt 13–14, 17–18, 41–3, 58, 64–6, 93,
Constance of Antioch 89, 91–3
96, 195, 234, 237–8, 246, 249, 258
Constantine the African 191, 262
Ekkehard of Aura 194
Constantine the Great 216, 261
Ellenblum, Ronnie 235–6
Constantinople 56, 58, 67, 169–71,
Embricon of Mainz 131, 133, 136,
174–5; capture of 64–5, 69–71;
142–3, 147, 149–52
crusader designs on 59, 61–6, 71;
England 12, 113, 121
patriarchs of 71
Ephraim (artist) 221
Crac des Chevaliers 16–18, 242, 247
Epp, Verena 177
crop-sharing agreements 32–3
Ernoul 96–7
crusade ideology 6, 22–3, 61, 70, 149,
Errationes in psalmos (Augustine) 138–9
151, 229, 232, 258
Eschenbach, Wolfram von 141
crusader chronicles 136–7
ethnicity 28, 68, 73, 110–11, 134, 138,
crypt, Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem 218–19
166, 174, 181
cultural language problems 232, 239, 243,
Eucharist issues 167, 172–3
248–9; gestures 241–50
Euphemie, wife of Julian of Sidon 97
cultural studies 1–2
Eusebius of Caesarea 138
Cyprus 84–6, 92, 95, 97–8; conquest by
eyewitness testimony 165, 174, 177–8,
Richard I 70, 92
180
d’Alverny, Thérèse 137
Fakr al-Din (envoy) 239, 259–60
Damascus 13, 18, 32–4, 38, 40, 43–4
famine 193–4
Damietta 16, 42
Fatimid rulers 13–14, 18, 28–9, 34, 41–3
Danes 120–1
Ferrara, Council of 67
Daniel, Norman 153
Field of Blood 17, 36, 91
Danishmends 14, 88
Fifth Crusade 16–17, 96–7, 193
De Haeresibus (John of Damascus) 137
fighting march 19–20
De Vita Sua sive Monodiae (Guibert)
filioque clause 167, 172–3
164–5
First Crusade 57–8, 262; and Armenians
Dédéyan, Gérard 85–6
83–5, 88; and Byzantium 6, 59–61,
deference, levels of 243–4
74, 161–2, 261; Fulcher on 174–81;
Dei gesta per Francos (Guibert) 4, 131,
Guibert on 164–74; and identities 107,
136, 162, 164–74
110–12, 114–16, 119–25; medics
Des viandes 206–8
191–2; Muslim response 28–30;
dialects 115–18
peacemaking 232, 243–4; responses to
Dialogus (Petrus Alfonsi) 137
Islam 132, 136, 139–40, 150; warfare
diplomacy 83, 86, 92, 230, 236, 238–41;
10, 12–18, 22
Byzantine 168–9; and diplomats
Flanders 11, 117, 124
238–41
Flanders, Count of 15, 58, 177, 179–80
discipline/indiscipline 16, 19, 21, 120,
Florence, Council of 67, 73
180
Flori, Jean 153
disease 193–5, 203, 208
Forse, J. H. 84
divorce 88–9, 93–4
Fourth Crusade 3, 55–6, 63–6, 68–71,
Dorylaeum, Battle of 15, 192, 243
73–4, 92–3, 237–8, 261
265
I N D E X
France 92, 107, 108, 111, 115, 117, 119
Guibert of Nogent 4, 88, 161; attitudes to
France, John 2, 259
Byzantium 162–77, 181; and crusader
Franci as general term 116–17, 119, 123
identities 107–10; and medicine 192,
Frederick I (Barbarossa), Holy Roman
194, 198–9; responses to Islam 131,
Emperor 23, 61–3, 70–1, 120–1, 262
The Crusades and the Near East Page 47