Beethoven’s Piano Concerto No. 5 in E-flat Major, Op. 73, known as the Emperor Concerto for its grandeur, was Beethoven’s greatest and last piano concerto. Composed in 1809, when the composer was 39, it is counted among the most popular concertos in the classical repertoire.
Beethoven began losing his hearing later in his life. Not one to let little things get him down, he is reputed to have sawed the legs off his piano so that the sound board lay on the wooden floor of his apartment. Beethoven would then sit on the floor and pound the piano as heavily as possible so that he could “feel” the music through the vibrating floor boards.
One of Beethoven’s most unusual works, like the Eroica, also reflects the political history of the day. His work Wellington’s Victory was written to celebrate the victory of the Duke of Wellington at Vitoria over the French forces of Napoleon’s brother Joseph Bonaparte, King of Spain, during the Peninsular War in 1813.
Surely Beethoven’s greatest work was his Ninth Symphony in D Minor. Ideas for this symphony occurred to Beethoven as early as 1812. It is sometimes even suggested that the roots of the project go back to the composer’s early years in Bonn, where he had his first expressed desire to set Schiller’s Ode to Joy to music. However, it was not until the autumn of 1822 that Beethoven began to plan to work in earnest. And not until 1823, when the Missa Solemnis was complete, was he able to devote his full energy to the symphony. This work was unique in the symphonic repertoire because it contained a choral section—Schiller’s Ode to Joy. The premiere took place on 7 May 1824, when Beethoven was totally deaf. During the concert the regular conductor, Kapellmeister Umlauf, stood nearby and actually ran things. He had earlier instructed the orchestra and choir to watch him and ignore Beethoven. The alto soloist, Karolin Unger, later supplied one of the most famous sentimental anecdotes in musical lore. After the triumphal finale, according to her story, Beethoven, back to the audience, remained unaware of the tumultuous applause, and she had to take his arm and gently turn him to witness his greatest public reception.
Beethoven died on 26 March 1827 and 10,000 mourners are reputed to have attended his funeral. Recent DNA tests of his hair indicate he died of lead poisoning.
BELGIUM. Belgium came under Austrian rule with the end of the War of the Spanish Succession and the division of the Spanish Empire among the branches of the House of Hapsburg. In 1789 the French Revolution stirred the simmering discontent with Austrian rule and a revolution erupted. Led by the conservative Henri van der Noot and progressive Jean-François Vonck, their followers united in armed opposition to the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Austria, defeating his occupying army at the battle of Turnhout. With the common enemy defeated, the Belgian factions turned on each other. In the end the conservative Statists gained the upper hand and occupied Brussels. This fratricidal struggle was known as the “Brabant Revolution” (so called because most of its leaders came from Brabant), and had widespread support in the towns. The heavily Flemish peasantry had little in common with the middle-class revolutionaries, who were mostly French-speaking Walloons. The peasants generally supported the Austrians.
After the death of Joseph II, his successor, Leopold II, decided to reestablish imperial authority in 1790 and his invading forces encountered no opposition from the people. On 2 December 1790, Austrian troops reoccupied Brussels. The discontented Statists turned to revolutionary France for support, but enthusiasm waned when it became clear that a French military victory was the prelude to annexation. On 1 October 1795, the French National Convention voted to annex the southern Netherlands (Belgium) and the Principality of Liège. With this act, the territory of the Principality of Liège was forever amalgamated into Belgium.
Under revolutionary French rule all hopes of autonomy vanished. The administration was streamlined and centralized, aristocratic privileges were abolished, and the church discouraged. Military conscription measures provoked a peasants’ revolt (1798–99), but repression was extremely harsh. Under the Consulate and Empire (1799–1814), Belgium being mostly Catholic, the position of the clergy was regulated by the concordat with the papacy. Further changes included the introduction of the French civil code and the decimal metric system and the reopening of the Schelde River to maritime traffic to and from Antwerp’s harbor.
The period 1795 to 1813 was a period of peace in Belgium. This ended in December 1813 when the allied armies, advancing westward from their victory at Leipzig, pushed into Belgium. Bülow’s Prussian corps from Bernadotte’s Army of the North moved into Holland and began the process of pushing south, into Belgium. French forces in the Lowlands were weak and there were no major battles. On 15 December 1813 the dreaded Cossacks appeared 15 miles from Antwerp. Later a British force landed in the Lowlands and began operating with the Prussians. On 13 January the first allied shells fell into Antwerp. Both Antwerp and Bergen-op-Zoom were besieged and an assault on Bergen-op-Zoom by the British ended in humiliating failure.
War would return to Belgium in 1815 when it became the focus of French military operations. Napoleon crossed the border in June 1815 and pushed north. He crushed the Prussians at the battle of Ligny (16 June 1815), was fought to a standstill at Quatre-Bras (16 June 1815) and defeated at Waterloo on 18 June. Belgium was the site of the final death throes of the Napoleonic Empire.
BENNIGSEN, LEVIN AUGUST, COUNT VON (1745–1826). Bennigsen was born on 10 February 1745 in Brunswick to a Hanoverian family. He joined the Hanoverian army and served there until 1764. In 1733 Bennigsen joined the Russian service as a field officer and fought against the Turks in 1774 and 1778. In 1779 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general. Bennigsen fought during the final partitioning of Poland in 1793–94 and in the Persian War of 1796. Bennigsen was very active in the conspiracy that led to the assassination of Czar Paul I, but his actual role is unknown. In 1801, under Alexander I he became governor-general of Lithuania. In 1807 Bennigsen commanded the Russian armies at Pultusk and at Eylau, where he faced Napoleon personally, fighting him to a standstill. On 14 June 1807, however, Napoleon decisively crushed him at the battle of Friedland. After 1807 he went into retirement, only to be recalled in 1812, where he fought at Borodino and Tarutino. After a quarrel with Marshal Kutusov he retired, but upon Kutusov’s death he was recalled and placed at the head of an army. Bennigsen played a decisive role at the battle of Leipzig (16–19 October 1813) and was made a count the night after the battle. Bennigsen retired from active service in 1818 and went to his Hanoverian estate of Banteln, near Hildesheim. Bennigsen died on 3 December 1826.
BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM HENRY CAVENDISH (1774–1839). Bentinck was born on 14 September 1774 as the second son of the 3rd Duke of Portland. Bentinck entered the army and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel. Bentinck was present at the battle of Marengo (14 June 1800) as an observer. In 1803 he was nominated to the post of governor of Madras, where he developed a reputation as being quarrelsome. The 1807 sepoy revolt in Vellore provoked his recall. During the end of the Napoleonic Wars, he served as the British commander in Sicily and was involved in the negotiations that led to Murat’s defection to the Allies. Bentinck succeeded Lord Amherst as governor-general of India in 1828, serving until 1835. His term in office was noted for the suppression of the Thugs, the abolition of suttee (burning the living wife in her husband’s funeral pyre), and of making English the basis for education in India. Bentinck died in Paris on 17 June 1839.
BÉRANGER, PIERRE JEAN DE (1780–1857). Béranger was born in Paris on 19 August 1780. He received little formal education, but had a talent for music. Béranger left home in 1802 and began his career as a songwriter. By 1804 he came to the attention of Lucien Bonaparte, who gave him a pension from the Institut de France. His songwriting continued and one of his most famous was Le Roi d’Yvetot, a satire about Napoleon, and escaped imperial retribution. In 1821 Béranger lost his post at the university, was tried and fined for his political songs. Béranger would be imprisoned twice. During the 1830 revolution, Béranger wrote L
e Vieux Drapeau, which inspired the insurgent crowds. Béranger was elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1848, but would soon resign. Béranger died on 16 July 1857.
BERESFORD, JOHN (1738–1805). Beresford was born on 14 March 1738 into Irish nobility. He attended Trinity College in Dublin and joined the Irish bar. Beresford stood for Parliament from Waterford in 1760. In 1780 he became the first commissioner of revenue, a very powerful position. Overall his tenure in this position was positive. In 1784 Beresford actively supported the adoption of the English navigation laws in return for removal of restrictions on Irish trade. In 1786 Beresford became part of the English Privy Council and his power in Ireland grew so great he was referred to as the “King of Ireland.” Beresford opposed relief of the Roman Catholics and the nomination of Lord Fitzwilliam as lord-lieutenant in 1795. In return, one of Lord Fitzwilliam’s first acts was to dismiss Beresford. A duel was provoked, but interrupted and Fitzwilliam apologized on the field of honor. When Lord Fitzwilliam was replaced by Lord Camden in March 1795, Beresford returned to his former post. Beresford would remain in Parliament, standing for Waterford until 1802. He died in Londonderry on 5 November 1805.
BERESFORD, WILLIAM CARR BERESFORD, VISCOUNT (1768–1854). Beresford was born on 2 October 1768 as the illegitimate son of the 1st Marquis of Waterford. Beresford entered the British army, 6th Regiment of Foot, in 1785, shortly later losing an eye in a shooting accident. In 1793 he distinguished himself at Toulon. In 1795 Beresford took command of the 88th Regiment of Foot (Connaught Rangers).
Between 1801 and 1803 Beresford served in India under Baird as a brigadier general and participated in the recapture of the Cape of Good Hope in January 1806. Beresford captured Buenos Aires, in what is now modern Argentina, that year as part of Admiral Popham’s New World adventure, but was forced to surrender when overwhelming forces were deployed against him. Beresford escaped and returned to England, where he was made governor of Madeira. While there Beresford learned Portuguese and was promoted to the rank of major general. Beresford joined Wellington at Lisbon in 1808 and served under Moore in the disastrous 1809 Coruña campaign. Later in 1809 Beresford was sent to Portugal to rebuild the Portuguese army and was promoted to the rank of marshal in that army on 2 March 1809 and pursued the rebuilding and training of the Portuguese army. After the battle of Bussaco he received a knighthood. Beresford commanded at the siege of Badajoz and was victorious at the battle of Albuera. Beresford was present at Salamanca, Vitoria, and in the 1813–14 campaigns.
Beresford was honored with ennoblement as Lord Beresford of Albuera and assumed a seat in the House of Lords. Beresford was then made governor of Jersey. In the service of the King of Portugal he suppressed rebellions in Rio de Janeiro, but would twice refuse senior commands in the following civil wars. Beresford returned to Britain and resumed his functions in Parliament, serving as a strong supporter of the Duke of Wellington. Beresford was promoted to full general in 1825 and served as master general of the ordnance from 1828 to 1830. After his retirement he became involved in a notorious dispute with the military historian and author Napier, over Napier’s description of the battle of Albuera. Beresford died in Bedgebury on 8 January 1854.
BEREZINA, CROSSING OF. The crossing of the Berezina River and associated battle occurred between 26 and 29 November 1812. The French Grande Armée was withdrawing from Moscow and had suffered greatly during the harsh winter weather as it moved westward. In order to speed its march, much of the baggage had been abandoned, including the bridging trains. General Elbé, of the Guard Engineers, had not completely implemented the order and had two field forges, eight wagons loaded with coal and tools, and had ordered each of his sappers to carry a tool, spikes and clamps. These would be critical when it was discovered that the bridge over the Berezina had been destroyed. Napoleon’s engineers plunged into the freezing water and proceeded to erect bridges that permitted the French to cross over and escape the closing Russian forces of Admiral Tchichagov. The Grande Armée was, however, disintegrating and a large mass of refugees was taken prisoner when the Russians finally captured the bridgehead.
BERLIN DECREE. Issued on 21 November 1806, it was the first of a series of decrees that would establish what is known as the Continental System. In this decree, Napoleon declared that the British Isles were under blockade and that no vessel of any nation, coming to the continent directly from Britain, would be permitted to trade in any port under his control. It was followed by the Milan Decree a year later that expanded the scope of this decree.
BERNADOTTE, JEAN-BAPTISTE JULES DE, PRINCE DE PONTE-CORVO, MARÉCHAL D’EMPIRE, KING OF SWEDEN (1763–1844). Bernadotte was born in Pau on 26 January 1763, the son of a lawyer. He enlisted in the Régiment de Brassac on 3 September 1780 as a common soldier. By 1791 Bernadotte had risen through the ranks to the grade of lieutenant. During the Revolution his career continued upward and on 4 April 1794 he was promoted to chef de brigade of the 71st Demi-brigade and served under Kléber. Bernadotte fought at Fleurus on 26 June 1794 and became a général de brigade on 29 June 1794. Bernadotte was victor at the battle of Binche on 2 October, captured the Wyk fort during the siege of Maastricht, and was promoted to the rank of général de division on 22 October 1794. In 1795 Bernadotte fought at Neuwied, was victor at Limburg, occupied Nurenburg, fought at Teining, was victor at Neumarkt, and then fell ill on 31 August, leaving the army.
In 1797 Bernadotte was assigned to the Army of Italy serving at Tagliamenot, took Palmanovo, fought at Gradisca and Laybach, and presented the flags taken in this campaign to the Directory on 3 August 1797. In 1799 he was reassigned to the Rhine. Bernadotte was dismissed from service as a result of his participation in the Sieyès conspiracy. Bernadotte was restored to service later in 1799, but refused to participate in the coup d’État du 18 brumaire. At this time he married Désirée Clary, sister of Julie Clary, wife to Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon’s brother. There are stories that he won the competition with Napoleon for Désirée’s hand. In 1802 Bernadotte was appointed ambassador to the United States, but because of the outbreak of hostilities he did not leave for that post. In 1804 Bernadotte became the commander of the 8th Cohort and grand officer of the Legion of Honor. He received the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honor in February 1805, and, ironically, in 1805, he was awarded the Prussian Order of the Black Eagle. Bernadotte commanded the central reserve in the battle of Austerlitz in December 1805 and for his services was awarded the title Prince de Ponte-Corvo on 5 June 1806.
During the 1806 campaign against Prussia, Bernadotte wandered aimlessly while Napoleon was winning the battle of Jena and Davout fought for his life at Auerstädt. Some suggest that he deliberately refused to support Davout because of a petty jealousy. Bernadotte engaged in the pursuit of the forces under Blücher, receiving Blücher’s surrender on 7 November 1806. Bernadotte was wounded during an engagement at Passarge on 4 March 1807 and again at Spandau on 5 June. In July 1807 he became governor of the Hanseatic cities. In 1809 Bernadotte participated in the campaign against the Austrians and fought at the battle of Wagram. Because of some sarcastic remarks aimed at Napoleon’s handling of the battle, when his Saxon infantry was repulsed, he was dismissed from the Grande Armée. Bernadotte returned to Paris, but his disgrace was apparently minor, for when the British landed at Walcheren in August, he was given command of the French forces that sealed off the beachhead and eventually defeated the British.
On 21 August 1810 Bernadotte was elected the new King of Sweden because of his courteous treatment of a Swedish division he captured in 1806, assumed the name Karl-Johann and became King Charles XIII of Sweden on 5 November. In an ironic twist, he had “Death to Tyrants” tattoed on his arm.
In 1813 Bernadotte joined the Sixth Coalition against France as a result of promises of heavy subsidies and a free hand against Norway. Bernadotte led the Swedish Army in Germany during the 1813 and 1814 campaigns and though the Swedes were at the battle of Leipzig they were never engaged. In 1814 Swedish forces invaded and captured Norw
ay. Bernadotte then became King of Sweden and Norway on 5 February 1818. Bernadotte died on 8 March 1844.
BERTHIER, LOUIS ALEXANDRE, PRINCE DE NEUCHTEL AND WALANGIN, PRINCE DE WAGRAM, MARÉCHAL D’EMPIRE (1753–1815). Berthier was born in Versailles on 20 November 1753. He fell to his death from a window in Bamberg, Bavaria, in a purported suicide on 1 June 1815. Berthier joined the Geographical Engineers on 1 January 1766 and on 11 March 1770 he was a lieutenant. In 1772 Berthier served with the Légion de Flandres and as a captain in the Lorraine Dragoons in 1776. Berthier continued his service in the royal army and by 11 July 1789 had risen to the rank of lieutenant colonel. On 22 May 1792 he was promoted to maréchal de camp (major general) and began an active career in the wars of the Revolution. On 8 October 1795 he became Napoleon’s chief of staff in the Army of the Alps and Italy.
Berthier became Napoleon’s indispensable right hand, serving as his chief of staff until the 1814 armistice. Berthier was promoted in May 1804 to the rank of maréchal d’Empire. On 30 March 1806 he was made Prince de Neuchâtel. Only once did he have an active field command and that was in 1809. Berthier was a marvelous military administrator, regularly working the logistical miracles that kept the Grande Armée operational, but a failure as a field commander. Berthier commanded the French armies in southern Germany in April 1809, when the Austrians attacked and drove him back. After the battle of Wagram he was given the title of Prince de Wagram. Berthier served loyally by Napoleon’s side until the 1814 armistice, when he was taken into the service of the Bourbons. Berthier followed Louis XVIII to Ghent and then moved to Bavaria. Berthier was stricken from the list of marshals on 10 April 1815.
Historical Dictionary of the Napoleonic Era Page 7