25. Act of Mar. 3, 1915, 38 Stat. 929; Act of August 29, 1916, 39 Stat. 558; U.S. Navy Dept., Naval Administration: Selected Documents on Navy Department Organization, 1915–1940, p. 1–3; Paullin, USNIP, XXXIX, 737, XL, 118; J. A. Mudd, “The Reorganization of the Naval Establishment,” USNIP, XXXV (1909), 37–44; Ann. Rept. of the Secy, of the Navy, 1885, pp. xxxix-xl.
26. See Root, Five Years of the War Department, pp. 297–298, 485; William H. Carter, Creation of the American General Staff (S. Doc. 119, 68th Cong., 1st Sess., 1924), pp. 2, 8, 20–23, and American Army, pp. 197, 204.
27. United Serv., IX (1883), 663, I (1902, 3rd Series), 604–631; Inf. Jour., IX (1912), 117–137, 255–261; USNIP, III (1877), 5ff., IX (1883), 155–194, 661, XII (1886), 527–546, XIV (1888), 632–633, XXII (1896), 2–3, XXIV (1898), 269, XXVII (1901), 27, 255, XXIX (1903), 538–539, 801, XXXI (1905), 76ff., XXXIII (1907), 485–487; Colonel J. B. Wheeler, The Elements of the Art and Science of War (New York, 1893), pp. 7–8, 317–319; Captain James S. Pettit, Elements of Military Science (New Haven, rev. ed., 1895), p. 150; Lt. Col. G. J. Fiebeger, Elements of Strategy (1906), pp. 73, 105; Captain Arthur L. Wagner, Organization and Tactics (New York, 1895), p. 2; Captain A. T. Mahan, Naval Strategy (London, 1912), pp. 2–5, 113–115.
28. Inf. Jour., IX (1912), 296–297; United Serv., IX, 663, III (1903, 3rd Series), 694–697; USNIP, XII (1886), 535, XXX (1904), 343, XXXI (1905), 323, XXXIII (1907), 127–130, 476, 527, 559; JMSI, X (1889), 624, XLII (1908), 26, 30, XLIX (1911), 2–4; General Hugh L. Scott, Some Memories of a Soldier (New York, 1928), p. 145; Mott, Twenty Years as a Military Attaché, pp. 340–341; Mahan, Naval Strategy, pp. 121, 135–136, 149, 191.
29. JMSI, XVI (1895), 211–250, XXI (1897), 226–228, 544–587, XXII (1898), 269, XXXVIII (1904), 329, XLII (1908), 22–23, XLVI (1910), 225–256; USNIP, XI (1885), 5, XII (1886), 530–543, XIII (1887), 178–180, XIV (1888), 4, XXIV (1898), 8–10, XXVII (1901), 5, 7, 16, XXIX (1903), 323, XXX (1904), 615–618; H. M. Chittenden, War or Peace: A Present Duty and A Future Hope (Chicago, 1911), p. 238; Rear Adm. Bradley A. Fiske, The Navy as a Fighting Machine (New York, 1916), pp. 13–16, 19–21, and Midshipman to Rear Admiral, p. 538; Richard Stockton, Jr., Peace Insurance (Chicago, 1915), pp. 41–42, 75, 77; Wagner, Organization and Tactics, Introduction; Capt. Harrison S. Kerrick, Military and Naval America (Garden City, N.Y., 1917), p. 382; Colonel James Mercur, Elements of the Art of War (New York, 3rd ed., 1894), pp. 11–15; Mahan, Naval Administration and Warfare, pp. 245–272; Wheeler, Elements of the Art and Science of War, p. v.
30. JMSI, XII (1891), 225–231, XVII (1895), 255, XXI (1897), 277–279, XXXVIII (1906), 38, XL (1907), 199–203; USNIP, V (1879), 126, IX (1883), 175–176, XIV (1888), 3–7, XXIV (1898), 8–9; United Serv., V (1881), 620–630, VII (1905, 3rd Series), 654–660; Wheeler, Elements of the Art and Science of War, p. 58; Mercur, Elements of the Art of War, p. 273; Scott, Memories of a Soldier, pp. 469–471, 545; Mahan, Naval Strategy, p. 21; U.S. War Dept., General Staff, Report on the Organization of the Land Forces of the United States (Washington, 1912), p. 12; Truman Seymour, Military Education (New York, 1864), p. 4.
31. JMSI, XVII (1895), 239, XXI (1897), 276, XL (1906), 203; USNIP, XXIV (1898), 11, XXVII (1901), 257, XXXI (1905), 79, XXXII (1906), 127–130, XXXIII (1907), 32–33, XXXVIII (1912), 567; Inf. Jour., X (1913), 473–485; Army War College, Statement of a Proper Military Policy for the United States (Supplementary War Dept. Doc. No. 526, September 1915), pp. 6–10; Mercur, Elements of the Art of War, pp. 11–15; Bradley A. Fiske, The Art of Fighting (New York, 1920), p. 365; Pettit, Elements of Military Science, p. 151; Captain J. M. Caleff, Notes on Military Science and the Art of War (Washington, 1898), pp. 61–62; Mahan, Naval Administration and Warfare, pp. 137–138. For military recommendations for a national defense council, see USNIP, XXXVIII (1912), 563–593, XXXIX (1913), 479–482, 1709–1710, XL (1914), 3–15, 636–638; Genl. Staff, Organization of the Land Forces, pp. 63–64; Fiske, Midshipman to Rear Admiral, pp. 537–538; A. T. Mahan, Armaments and Arbitration (New York, 1912), pp. 57–77; Nelson, National Security and the General Staff, p. 237.
32. USNIP, V (1879), 160, XI (1885), 4, XVI (1890), 201, 368, XXIV (1898), 41, XXVIII (1902), 266–267, 840, XXX (1904), 476–479, 493–494, 620–621, XL (1914), 1301; JMSI, XIV (1893), 238, XXI (1897), 239–240, XLII (1903), 336, XLIV (1909), 385, XLVI (1910), 193–194, 213–214; Inf. Jour., IX (1912), 151–160, X (1914), 777; United Serv., IX (1883), 658–666; Wagner, Organization and Tactics, p. v; Fiske, Navy as a Fighting Machine, pp. 5–6, 21–29, and ch. 4, and Midshipman to Rear Admiral, pp. 555–560; Chittenden, War or Peace, pp. 20Iff., 230–231; Stockton, Peace Insurance, chs. 3, 4; Scott, Memories of a Soldier, p. 218; A. T. Mahan, Some Neglected Aspects of War (Boston, 1907), pp. 45–52, and The Interest of America in Sea Power (Boston, 1898), p. 193; Lt. Col. A. L. Wagner and Cdr. J. D. J. Kelley, The United States Army and Navy (Akron, 1899), pp. 100–103, Kerrick, Military and Naval America, ch. 46. The White quotation is from Allen Westcott (ed.), Mahan on Naval Warfare (Boston, 1941), p. xix. For other analysis of military views on this subject, see Morison, Admiral Sims and the Modern American Navy, ch. 23; Brown, “Social Attitudes,” pp. 266–268, 272–273; Puleston, Mahan, ch. 20. For a rare military adherence to the bellicose version of Social Darwinism, see United Serv., IV (1903, 3rd Series) 390–398.
33. Major R. L. Bullard, JMSI, XXVI (January-February 1905), 104–114. See also JMSI, XXIX (1906), 331, XXXVI (1910), 268, XXXVIII (1906), 1–38, 327, 363, XXXIX (1907), 329–340, XL (1907), 384, XLII (1908), 1–12, 18, 340, XLIV (1909), 378, 384, XLVI (1910), 214–215; USNIP, V (1879), 162, VI (1880), 382–383, XIV (1888), 625–626, XX (1894), 796ff., XXVII (1901), 16, XXIX (1903), 323, XXXIX (1913), 516–536, 546, XL (1914), 1073–1074; Inf. Jour., IX (1912), 300–303; A. T. Mahan, From Sail to Steam (New York, 1907), p. 7; Carter, American Army, p. 26; Army War College, Proper Military Policy, p. 9; Homer Lea, The Valor of Ignorance (New York, 1909), pp. 19–20, 24–28, 58–71; General M. B. Stewart, “Soldiering — What Is There in It?” Harper’s Weekly, LUI (Dec. 11, 1909), 16, “Shame of the Uniform” ibid., LVII (May 24, 1913), 12–13; Colonel C. W. Lamed, “Modern Education from a Military Viewpoint,” North American Review, CLXXXVII (April 1908), 506; Mott, Twenty Years as a Military Attaché, pp. 30–31.
Chapter 10 — The Failure of the Neo-Hamiltonian Compromise
1. The literature on Neo-Hamiltonian personalities and ideas is voluminous, but only a small portion deals with their approach to military affairs. For a concise analysis of Theodore Roosevelt’s philosophy of international relations, see Robert E. Osgood, Ideals and Self-Interest in America’s Foreign Relations (Chicago, 1953), pp. 88–91, and, for the Neo-Hamiltonian approach generally, pp. 58–70. Gordon C. O’Gara, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of the Modern Navy (Princeton, 1943), explores the impact of the Colonel on that service. For Root’s views, see Five Years of the War Department (Washington, 1904) and The Military and Colonial Policy of the United States (Cambridge, Mass., 1916), Richard W. Leopold, Elihu Root and the Conservative Tradition (Boston, 1954), passim, and Philip C. Jessup, Elihu Root (New York, 2 vols., 1938), I, 215–264. Brooks Adams’ ideas are discussed in Thornton Anderson, Brooks Adams, Constructive Conservative (Ithaca, N.Y., 1951). Croly’s philosophy is set forth in The Promise of American Life (New York, 1909). For the opinions of Croly, Lippmann, and their associates on the New Republic, see New Republic, I (Dec. 12, 1914), 6–7, (Jan. 8, 1915), 9–10, II (Mar. 20, 1915), 166–167.
2. A. T. Mahan, From Sail to Steam (New York, 1907), pp. xiv, 274. Mahan expressed his religious philosophy in The Harvest Within: Thoughts on the Life of the Christian (Boston, 1909). On this aspect of his life, see also W. D. Puleston, Mahan (New Haven, 1939), pp. 15–17, 24, 37, 44, 63, 72–73; C. C. Taylor, The Life of Admiral Mahan (London, 1920), p. ix.
3. Mahan, Naval Strategy (London, 1912), pp. 20–21, 107–108, The Interest of America in Sea Power (Boston, 1897), pp. 104, 121–122, 223, Armaments and Arbitr
ation (New York, 1912), pp. 15–35, 70–77, 100–120, Naval Administration and Warfare (Boston, 1908), pp. 1–86, 175–242, Retrospect and Prospect (Boston, 1902), pp. 17, 20–21, 39–53, Lessons of the War with Spain and Other Articles (Boston, 1899), pp. 207–240; William E. Livezey, Mahan on Sea Power (Norman, Okla., 1947), pp. 175–187, 263–270, 292–293.
4. Mahan, From Sail to Steam, p. 313; Mahan to Samuel Ashe, Nov. 24, 1893, quoted in Livezey, Mahan, pp. 12–13; Puleston, Mahan, p. 148.
5. Livezey, Mahan, pp. 89–90, 254.
6. Ibid., pp. 272–273.
7. Mahan, Retrospect and Prospect, p. 24, From Sail to Steam, pp. 7, 276, Armaments and Arbitration, pp. 121–154, 211–212; Puleston, Mahan, pp. 206, 274–275, 292, 323; Osgood, Ideals and Self-Interest, pp. 39–40.
8. For Wood’s adherence to the military ethic, see his Our Military History (Chicago, 1916), pp. 28, 31–54, 84–85, and The Military Obligation of Citizenship (Princeton, 1915), pp. 40–41, 62. For his activities in Army reform, see Hermann Hagedorn, Leonard Wood (New York, 2 vols., 1931), II, 109, 125–128; Eric F. Wood, Leonard Wood: Conservator of Americanism (New York, 1920), pp. 268–270. Hagedorn’s book is the best source on Wood but it is blind to even his most obvious shortcomings. A critical biography of this fascinating man is definitely needed.
9. H. L. Stimson to W. G. Harding, Jan. 9, 1921, quoted in Hagedorn, Wood, II, 101.
10. See Wood, Military History, pp. 169, 177ff., 188–190, 194–195, 206, and Military Obligation of Citizenship, pp. 69–76.
11. Inf. Jour., XXV (1924), 520; Ann. Rept. of the Secy, of War, 1920. pp. 8–9.
12. Inf. Jour., XVI (1920), 623–29, 827–831, XXX (1927), 253; Ann. Rept. of the Secy, of War, 1924, pp. 12–13, 27, 1928, pp. 14–16.
13. AR 600–10, Change 1, Dec. 31, 1927, Secs. 6a-6d; Inf. Jour., XXI (1922), 454–455, XXIV (1924), 36–39, XXV (1925), 41–43, 520, XXVI (1925), 618, 651–656.
14. Ann. Rept. of the Superintendent of the United States Military Academy, 1920, p. 4; Inf. Jour., XXVIII (1926), 276–283, 324, XXIX (1926), 391–395.
15. Ann. Rept. of the Secy, of the Navy, 1921, pp. 6–7, 1923, pp. 16–22; U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence, The United States Navy in Peacetime: The Navy in Its Relation to the Industrial, Scientific, Economic, and Political Development of the Nation (Washington, 1931); Ann. Rept. of the Secy, of War, 1925, p. 3; Inf. Jour., XXV (1924), 521, XXVI (1925), 288–289, XXX (1927), 2–7.
16.. Ann. Rept. of the Secy, of War, 1920, pp. 16–17, 1926, pp. 22–24; Inf. Jour., XV (1918), 325–333, XVI (1920), 725–729, (1919–20), 70–71, 593, 725–729, XVIII (1921), 217–218, 325–328, XIX (1921), 7–11.
17. Inf. Jour., XVIII (1921), 31–33, XXII (1923), 271–286, XXIV (1924), 25ff., XXXIII (1928), 229–230. The most influential anti-ROTC brochure was Winthrop D. Lane, Military Training in Schools and Colleges of the United States (New York, 2d ed., 1926). For an excellent analysis of the opposition to “militarism in education,” see Arthur A. Ekirch, Jr., The Civilian and the Military (New York, 1956), ch. 14.
18. Inf. Jour., XXVIII (1926), 485–4S9, XXI (1922), 214–216, XXVII (1925), 62–66, 242–249, 432–436, XXVIII (1926), 196, XXXI (1927), 493, 611–615, XXXIV (1929), 618ff.; U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, LVII (1931), 604; Ann. Rept. of the Secy, of War, 1923, passim, 1930, pp. 94–98; Sidney Forman, West Point (New York, 1950), pp. 192–193; Harold and Margaret Sprout, Toward a New Order of Sea Power (Princeton, 1946), esp. pp. 104–121.
Chapter 11 — The Constancy of Interwar Civil-Military Relations
1. Liberalism in America (New York, 1919), pp. viii, 17, 200–202. This remarkable volume sets the tone for reform thought between Wilson and the New Deal. For Stearns’s influence, see John Chamberlain, Farewell to Reform (New York, 1932), pp. 301–305, and Eric F. Goldman, Rendezvous with Destiny (New York, 1952), pp. 276–281.
2. U.S. Foreign Policy: Shield of the Republic (Boston, 1943), p. xi.
3. Stuart Chase, “The Tragedy of Waste,” New Republic, XLIII (Aug. 12, 1925), 312–316; Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilization (New York, 1934), p. 93.
4. Margery Bedinger, “The Goose Step at West Point,” New Republic, LXIV (Sept. 24, 1930), 146; F. B. Johnson, “Discipline,” ibid., XIX (July 2, 1919), 280–283; T. M. Pease, “Does the Military Caste System Work in War?” ibid., XX (Aug. 6, 1919), 27–28; “The Military Idea of Manliness,” Independent, LIII (April 18, 1901), 874–875.
5. Maxim’s book, Defenseless America (New York, 1915), was almost a caricature of the reformer’s critique, the machine gun manufacturer arguing at one point, that “The quick-firing gun is the greatest life-saving instrument ever invented.”
6. Simeon Strunsky, “Armaments and Caste,” Annals of the American Academy, LXVI (July 1916), 237–246; C. E. Jefferson, “Military Preparedness a Peril to Democracy,” ibid., pp. 232–233; Stearns, Liberalism in America, pp. 84–85; H. C. Engelbrecht, Merchants of Death (New York, 1934), pp. 113–114, 143–144; H. F. Ward, “Free Speech for the Army,” New Republic, LI (July 13, 1927), 194–196.
7. F. H. Giddings, “The Democracy of Universal Military Service,” Annals of the American Academy, LXVI (July 1916), 175; Josephus Daniels, The Wilson Era: Years of Peace — 1910–1917 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1944), pp. 253–278, 386–403.
8. Ann. Rept. of the Secy, of the Navy, 1932, p. 190; U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings (hereafter cited as USNIP), LI (1925), 274–279, LVI (1930), 123–131, LVII (1931), 1364–1366, LVIII (1932), 1110–1115, L1X (1933), 1438–1441; Inf. Jour., XXXIX (1932), 355–357, XLIV (1937), 254; Sidney Forman, West Point (New York, 1950), p. 200; William H. Baumer, Jr., West Point: Moulder of Men (New York, 1942), pp. 108–109.
9. On Navy promotion, see Acts of June 10, 1926, 44 Stat. 717; June 22, 1926, 44 Stat. 761; Mar. 3, 1931, 46 Stat. 1482; June 23, 1938, 52 Stat. 944; Ann. Rept. of the Secy, of the Navy, 1926, pp. 138–39, 1930, pp. 177–178; and USNIP files for 1935 and 1936 where promotion received constant attention, esp. Admiral W. S. Sims, “Service Opinion upon Promotion and Selection,” USNIP, LXI (June 1935), 791–806. On the Army, see Acts of June 4, 1920, 41 Stat. 771–774, and July 31, 1934, 49 Stat. 505 Ann. Rept. of the Secy, of War, 1922, p. 20, 1924, pp. 33–34, 1932, p. 73; Ann. Rept. of the Chief of Staff, 1927, p. 53, 1930. p. 141, 1931, p. 41, 1932, pp. 64–66, 69–70, 1933, p. 35, 1938, p. 36; Inf. Jour., XVI (1920), 591, XLII (1935), 119–125, XLIV (1937), 532–535.
10. Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War (New York, 1947), p. 33; General Peyton C. March, The Nation at War (New York, 1932), p. 373; Charles G. Washburn, The Life of John W. Weeks (Boston, 1928), p. 288; Pendleton Herring, The Impact of War (New York, 1941), ch. 4.
11. On these battles, see Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service, p. 36; Otto L. Nelson, Jr., National Security and the General Staff (Washington, 1946), pp. 132–166, 187–210, 247–253; Maj. Gen. Robert L. Bullard, Personalities and Reminiscences of the War (Garden City, N.Y., 1925), p. 26; Maj. Gen. James G. Harbord, The American Army in France, 1917–1919 (Boston, 1936), pp. 22–23, 110–111; March, The Nation at War, pp. 49–50, 371; General John J. Pershing, My Experiences in the World War (New York, 1931), pp. 185–192.
12. William H. Carter, The American Army (Indianapolis, 1915), p. 200; Nelson, National Security and the General Staff, p. 65.
13. Herring, Impact of War, p. 82; Frederick Palmer, Newton D. Baker: America at War (New York, 2 vols., 1931), I, 11.
14. On the breakdown of the War Department in World War I, see Nelson, National Security and the General Staff, pp. 220ff.; Bullard, Personalities and Reminiscences, pp. 21–23; Paul Y. Hammond, “The Secretaryships of War and the Navy: A Study of Civilian Control of the Military” (Ph.D. Thesis, Harvard Univ., 1953), pp. 114–132.
15. See Hearings before House Committee on Military Affairs on H. R. 8287, 66th Cong., 1st Sess., pp. 1803–1804 (1919); Nelson, National Security and the General Staff, pp. 282–287, 301–307; John Dickinson, The Building of an Army (New York, 1922), pp
. 307–322; Mark S. Watson, Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Preparations (Washington, 1950), pp. 60–64, 75–76; John D. Millett, The Organization and Role of the Army Service Forces (Washington, 1954), pp. 14–18.
16. On the World War II reorganization, see Millett, Army Service Forces, ch. 2, pp. 173–181, 429, 480, 514–516; Ray S. Cline, Washington Command Post: The Operations Division (Washington, 1951), pp. 70, 91–93, 99, 270–274, 352–361; Nelson, National Security and the General Staff, pp. 328–334, 373–382; Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service, pp. 449–452.
17. See U.S. Navy Dept., Naval Administration: Selected Documents on Navy Department Organization, 1915–1940, passim; R. E. Coontz, From the Mississippi to the Sea (Philadelphia, 1930), p. 400; Ernest J. King and Walter Whitehill, Fleet Admiral King: A Naval Record (New York, 1952), pp. 261ff., 471–478; Hammond, “Secretaryships of War and the Navy,” pp. 223–246, 293–305. For naval support for the vertical system, see USNIP, XLII (1916), 1137–1170, 1451–1452, LI (1925), 521–561, LXVI (1940), 52–57. On the evolution of the office of CNO prior to World War II, see the articles by H. P. Beers, Military Affairs, X-XI (1946–47).
18. U.S. Navy Dept., Naval Administration, pp. VI-202–203, VI-224; Ann. Rept. of the Secy, of the Navy, 1920, pp. 199–210, 348, 380.
19. Ann. Rept. of the Secy, of the Navy, 1920, p. 207.
20. Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service, p. 506. For further comments on the insularity and parochialism of the Navy from one who should know, Franklin D. Roosevelt, see Marriner S. Eccles, Beckoning Frontiers (New York, 1951), pp. 335–336.
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