by Gurbir Singh
[944]. Orlov, Dr Vladimir. 2016. New Threats and Challenges to Global Security: A View from Russia. In BRICS 2016 Academic Forum. Retrieved from http://www.pircenter.org/media/content/files/13/14742852490.pdf
[945]. Conference on Disarmament Hears from Its President and India on Behalf of the Group of 21.30 June 2015. Retrieved from http://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B9C2E/(httpNewsByYear_en)/A018DB7463063189C1257E74005690C8?OpenDocument..
[946]The following paper from 2013 discusses the complex picture of the evolving arms race in south Asia. Tandler, Toby Dalton, Jaclyn, and Toby Dalton Tandler Jaclyn. ‘Understanding the Arms "Race" in South Asia'. Accessed 13 July 2017. http://carnegieendowment.org/2012/09/13/understanding-arms-race-in-south-asia-pub-49361.
[947] Interestingly, the first ASAT test was conducted by the US in 1959. A missile launched from a B47 bomber targeted a US satellite, Explorer 6 in Earth orbit. Bowman, Robert. Star Wars: A Defense Insider’s Case Against the Strategic Defense Initiative. 1st Edition. Los Angeles: New York: J P Tarcher, 1986. P14
[948]. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, an engineer with deep connections with ISRO and later the President of India, wrote in 1999 “In today’s world, technological backwardness leads to subjugation. Can we allow our freedom to be compromised on this account? It is our bounden duty to guarantee the security and integrity of our nation against this threat. Should we not uphold the mandate bequeathed to us by our forefathers who fought for the liberation of our country from imperialism? Only when we are technologically self-reliant will we be able to fulfil their dream” Kalam, A. P. J. Abdul and Arun Tiwari. Wings of Fire: An Autobiography. Universities Press, 1999. P91
[949]. Rai, Cmde Ranjit and Gulshan Luthra. June 2008. Space, China, ASAT, and the Indian Armed Forces. IndiaStrategic. Retrieved from http://www.indiastrategic.in/topstories126.htm.
[950]. Onboard Almaz space station, the USSR tested an R-23 Kartech cannon derived from a 23-millimetre cannon originally designed for a Tupolev-Tu-22 bomber. About 20 rounds were test fired on 24 January 1975 when the Almaz was unmanned and close to re-entry. The rounds, like the Almaz space station, burnt up in the Earth's atmosphere. Zak, Anatoly. 2015. Here Is the USSR's Secret Space Cannon. Popular Mechanics. Retrieved from http://www.popularmechanics.com/military/weapons/a18187/here-is-the-soviet-unions-secret-space-cannon/
[951]. As unusual as it may sound, spacecraft do carry shotguns. The USSR’s tradition of equipping re-entry capsules with guns as part of a survival kit should the return to Earth landing occur in an uninhabited area continues to this day. Although not known to have been unpacked, every Soyuz spacecraft to the ISS carries such a gun. Oberg, James. 2001. The Russian Gun at the International Space Station. In Oberg, James. 2001. Star-Crossed Orbits: Inside the US-Russian Space Alliance. McGraw-Hill. http://www.jamesoberg.com/russiangun_tec.html.
[952]. US Statement on Peaceful Use of Outer Space, Thematic Debate of UNGA First Committee. 19 October 2009. Retrieved from https://geneva.usmission.gov/2009/10/19/outerspace/
[953]. Rao, Radhakrishna. 6 March 2016. The Strategic Importance of Space Law for India. Indian Defence Review. Retrieved from http://www.indiandefencereview.com/news/the-strategic-importance-of-space-law-for-india/.
[954]. John, Arvind K. August 2012. India and the ASAT Weapon. ORF Issue Brief #41. Retrieved from http://www.orfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/IssueBrief_41b.pdf.
[955]. Interview with Dr M. Y. S. Prasad. 12 Jan 2015. See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dogXGI55CvM
[956]. Data breaches have been reported by Indian Railways, Canara Bank and Flipkart. Saha, Preet and Pallavi Reddy. 29 November 2016. Where Are We on Cyber Security in India? Security Intelligence. Retrieved from https://securityintelligence.com/where-are-we-on-cybersecurity-in-india/
[957]. Some reports attribute the loss of ISRO’s INSAT-4B to the highly specialised and customised Stuxnet malware. http://www.spamfighter.com/News-15217-Stuxnet-Worm-Responsible-for-Destroying-Indian-Satellite.htm. However, ISRO dismissed the possibility because the specific component, a Programmable Logic Controller, that the Stuxnet worm was designed to attack was not used in INSAT-4B (Find the Economic Times article here: http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/internet/cyber-threat-isro-rules-out-stuxnet-attack-on-insat-4-b/articleshow/6733370.cms.) In July 2012, the website of Antrix was the subject of a breach that was initially attributed to Chinese hackers (The news article on First Post is here: http://www.firstpost.com/india/website-of-antrix-commercial-arm-of-isro-hacked-2338712.html)
[958]. Krishnan, M. October 2012. India to Enhance Cyber Defense. DW. Retrieved from http://www.dw.com/en/india-to-enhance-cyber-defense/a-16318351
[959]. The Strategic Importance of Space Law for India’ 2016. Indian Defence Review. http://www.indiandefencereview.com/news/the-strategic-importance-of-space-law-for-india/.
[960]. Govt Gets Cracking on Three New Tri-Service Commands. 20 August 2015. The Times of India. Retrieved from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Govt-gets-cracking-on-three-new-tri-Service-commands/articleshow/48550424.cms.
[961]. Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai and Narayan Prasad. 2017. Space India 2.0: Commerce, Policy, Security and Governance Perspectives. Observer Research Foundation. P209. Retrieved from http://www.orfonline.org/research/space-india-2-0-commerce-policy-security-and-governance-perspectives/.
[962]. This debris field will evolve over time as collisions between fragments will result in smaller fragments increasing the total number of objects over time. See https://swfound.org/media/9550/chinese_asat_fact_sheet_updated_2012.pdf
[963]. This was in a statement by Garold Larson, Alternate Representative to the First Committee of the 64th United Nations General Assembly. US Statement on Peaceful Use of Outer Space, Thematic Debate of UNGA First Committee. 19 October 2009. Retrieved from https://geneva.usmission.gov/2009/10/19/outerspace/
[964]This is one commitment from a private operator with ambitions to grow space services from LEO. In practice, all new entrants (private or not) will have to enforce de-orbit policies as spacecraft are launched into an increasingly congested area around the Earth. ‘OneWeb Vouches for High Reliability of Its Deorbit System - SpaceNews.com'. Accessed 13 July 2017. http://spacenews.com/oneweb-vouches-for-high-reliability-of-its-deorbit-system/
[965]. Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology. March 2010. Space Debris. Retrieved from http://www.parliament.uk/documents/documents/upload/postpn355.pdf. For more details on the Kessler syndrome, see http://webpages.charter.net/dkessler/files/Kessler%20Syndrome-AAS%20Paper.pdf
[966]. United Nations. September 2007. Inter-Agency Debris Coordination—Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines.
[967]. The quote comes from the Bogata declaration. Also in this paper is a reference to an interesting statistic – an upper limit of 2000 satellites in GEO. Probably accurate in the 1980s but current technology can probably exceed that. The current usage of GEO is less than 0.5%. http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1216&context=njilb
[968]. Acquiring GEO slots and radio frequencies can be a source of international tension. The COPUOS treaty asserts that these slots are in outer space and thus belong to all nations. In 1976, seven equatorial states, including Colombia, Ecuador and Indonesia, issued the Bogota Declaration, claiming sovereignty over the portion of the geostationary arc above their respective territories. The Bogota signatories argued that the GSO was not, in fact, part of outer space but a distinct region determined by the Earth's gravitational pull. Support for this position by other developing countries has been mixed, partly because ownership by any one nation contradicts the desire of many developing countries for "equitable and/or guaranteed access" to the GSO. However, the equatorial countries obtained the backing of G-77 for a position paper, which declares that "the present regulatory mechanism for assigning orbit positions and radio spectrum does not ensure equitable access to this resource..." and that a new regulatory mechanism is necessary which will take into account "the particular needs of th
e developing countries including those of the equatorial countries". US Government. 1983. UNISPACE '82: A Context for International Cooperation and Competition. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 83-600520. P44. Retrieved from http://ota.fas.org/reports/8328.pdf.
[969]. Lele, Ajey. 2017. Fifty Years of the Outer Space Treaty: Tracing the Journey. Pentagon Press. P23. Retrieved from http://www.idsa.in/book/fifty-years-of-the-outer-space-treaty-tracing-the-journey.
Chapter 17
[970]. Sarabhai, Vikram. 1970. Atomic Energy and Space Research. A Profile for the Decade 1970-80. Government of India. Retrieved from http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/02/006/2006423.pdf.
[971]. Prakash, Gyan. 1999. Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India. Princeton: Princeton University Press, P16.
[972]. The programme was politically motivated, but its ambitions were wide-ranging and noble. In part, its stated aim was “The United States and other free nations have a clear-cut and immediate concern in the material progress of these people. It arises not only from humanitarian impulses but also from the fact that such progress in the underdeveloped areas will advance the cause of freedom and democracy in the world, expand mutually beneficial trade, and help to develop international understanding and good will.” Being point four in President Truman's speech, the programme acquired this title. US Department of State. 1950. Point Four: Cooperative Program for Aid in the Development of Economically Underdeveloped Areas. Rev. Washington. P1. Full text is available here: http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pcaac280.pdf
[973]. The full text of Nehru’s speech at the Bandung Conference in 1955 is available here: http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1955nehru-bandung2.html It was at this conference that the term Third World emerged as an alternative to the capitalist First World and the communist Second World on either side of the Cold War. Initially, intended to represent a collection of countries (mostly former colonial countries) that chose not to align with either, the term Third World today is used interchangeably with the term ‘developing nations’.
[974]. Some key events between 1963 and 2001 that shaped India's international relationships include the war with China in 1962, China's first nuclear test in 1964, war with Pakistan in 1965, launch of China's first satellite in 1970, Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, India's first nuclear test in 1974, launch of India's first satellite in 1975, Emergency (suspension of democracy) in India from 25 June 1975 to 21 March 1977, the first successful launch of SLV-3 in 1980, launch of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program in 1983, Pokhran II nuclear tests in 1998 and the terrorist attack in the US on 11 September 2001. The last brought India, as a democracy, closer once again to the US. Except for the three years of Emergency between 1975–77, when Indira Gandhi ruled by decree, democracy has prevailed in India since independence.
[975]. This delightful term comes from Ajey Lele. Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai and Narayan Prasad. 2017. Space India 2.0: Commerce, Policy, Security and Governance Perspectives. Observer Research Foundation. P180. Retrieved from http://www.orfonline.org/research/space-india-2-0-commerce-policy-security-and-governance-perspectives/
[976]. Published in 2011, the detailed content and arguments remain relevant even half a decade later. Moltz, J. 2011. Asia’s Space Race: National Motivations, Regional Rivalries, and International Risks. Columbia University Press. P125.
[977]. At first glance, this account of ISRO's achievements could come across as exaggerated but is not. Written in an engaging narrative, Touching Lives records first-hand testimony from the people in India's rural communities whose lives ISRO's services were designed to impact. Das, S. K. 2007. Touching Lives: The Little Known Triumphs of the Indian Space Programme. Penguin India. P171.
[978]. The internationally accepted definition is an earnings of $1 (about Rs.67) per day. In India, it is Rs.900 (about $14) per month, which is around 50 US cents per day and fluctuates significantly with exchange rates.
[979]. Rector, Robert and Rachel Sheffield. 15 September 2014. The War on Poverty After 50 Years. The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2014/09/the-war-on-poverty-after-50-years. The US's attempt was not unique. Indian governments, too, have tried similar programmes, for example, Garibi Hatao (Remove Poverty). It was made popular by the Congress Party under Mrs Indira Gandhi, especially during the lead to the 1971 elections. Basu, Raj. 2012. Understanding the Poverty Amelioration Programmes of the Congress: The Narratives from the Jawaharlal Nehru and Indira Gandhi Years. Mykolas Romeris University. P372. Retrieved from https://www.mruni.eu/upload/iblock/20c/001_Basu.pdf.
[980]. Rector, Robert and Rachel Sheffield. 15 September 2014. The War on Poverty After 50 Years. The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2014/09/the-war-on-poverty-after-50-years.
[981]. Panagariya, Arvind. 2008. India: The Emerging Giant. Oxford University Press. P137.
[982]. Tharoor, Shashi. 2015. India Shastra: Reflections on the Nation in Our Time. First edition. New Delhi: Aleph Book Company.
[983]. Bhanumurthy, N. R. and A. Mitra. 2004. Economic Growth, Poverty, and Inequality in the Indian States in the Pre-reform and Reform Periods. Asian Development Review 21 (2): 79-99.
[984]. Chaudhary, Dipanjan Roy. 15 September 2015. India Offers $1 Billion Aid to Afghanistan to Fight Terrorism. The Economic Times. Retrieved from http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/india-offers-1-billion-aid-to-afghanistan-to-fight-terrorism/articleshow/54338150.cms
[985]. Ibid
[986]. Report of the Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. 1982. P117. Retrieved from http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/documents-and-resolutions/search.jspx?view=&match=a%2Fconf.101
[987]. Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai and Narayan Prasad. 2017. Space India 2.0: Commerce, Policy, Security and Governance Perspectives. Observer Research Foundation. P3. Retrieved from http://www.orfonline.org/research/space-india-2-0-commerce-policy-security-and-governance-perspectives/
[988]. PricewaterhouseCoopers Private Limited. March 2016. Capacity Crunch Continues: Assessment of Satellite Transponders’ Capacity for the Indian Broadcast and Broadband Market. CASBAA. P7. Retrieved from http://edge.casbaa.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/India-Satellite-Regulation-The-Capacity-Crunch-Continues-March-2016.pdf.
[989]. Lok Sabha Unstarred Question No. 2412. 11 March 2015. The Government of India, Department of Space. http://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/lu_2412.pdf
[990]. The payload on GSAT-4 included a GAGAN unit, Hall effect electric propulsion, 6 x C-band and 6 x Ku-band transponders. GSAT-5P payload included 24 x C-band and 12 x Ext C-band transponders.
[991]. ISRO chairman challenged this number: In total, the country needs 150 additional transponders and not 500 as claimed by private users. ISRO Set to Replace Foreign-leased Transponders in Two Years. 20 May 2015. The Hindu Business Line. Retrieved from http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/science/isro-set-to-replace-foreignleased-transponders-in-two-years/article7228034.ece
[992]. Ministry of Science and Technology. 2011. Working Group Report for the Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-17). The Government of India, P44. Retrieved from http://planningcommission.gov.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp12/wg_power1904.pdf.
[993]. Madhumati D. S. 27 December 2016. Chronic Capacity Shortage Sends ISRO Searching for Lease of Overseas Satellite. The Hindu. Retrieved from http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/Chronic-capacity-shortage-sends-ISRO-searching-for-lease-of-overseas-satellite/article16946490.ece
[994]. These figures are from the annual report produced by the Satellite Industry Association. State of the Satellite Industry Report. September 2016. Retrieved from http://www.sia.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/SSIR-2016-update.pdf
[995]. Rajaraman, V. History of Computing in India 1955–2010. 2012. http://www.cbi.umn.edu/hostedpublications/pdf/Rajaraman_HistComputingIndia.pdf. P14
[996]. Kalam
, A. P. J. Abdul and Y. S. Rajan. 2014. India 2020: A Vision for the New Millennium. Millennium edition. Penguin. P45.
[997] Space India 2.0: Commerce, Policy, Security and Governance Perspectives. Observer Research Foundation. P215-283. Retrieved from http://www.orfonline.org/research/space-india-2-0-commerce-policy-security-and-governance-perspectives Arup Dasgupta “Unlocking the Potential of Geospatial Data” P56
[998]. Foust, Jeff. 2 December 2016. Indian X Prize Team Secures Launch Contract with ISRO. Spacenews. http://spacenews.com/indian-x-prize-team-secures-launch-contract-with-isro/
[999]. As a member of the Planning Commission, Kasturirangan recalls “But when we discussed the whole thing, they felt that we should enhance the budget of ISRO. In fact, it was the only one instance when the planning commission wanted to increase, whereas they were cutting mercilessly in many other areas. This shows the trust ISRO enjoys in those places”. ISRO. 2016. From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India’s Space Journey. Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India: Harper Collins India, p.494.