Observing the material processes at their most fundamental level, we discover only materiality; there is nothing intrinsically beautiful, nothing that offers a suitable support for happiness.201 When matter is no longer assumed to be solid and enduring, both blind enchantment with pleasant things and habitual repulsion from unpleasant things will fade.
The four elements meditation is primarily concerned with gathering appropriate objects for vipassanā. We have not emphasized the contemplation of impermanence or emptiness, which will be highlighted at alater stage of vipassanā. Even in this early phase, however, the impermanent, ungraspable, unsatisfactory, and empty nature of matter is starkly obvious. By observing the elemental nature of matter, you’ll find that attachment to possessions will naturally diminish, the bonds of sense desire will weaken, and the illusion of substantiality and permanence will break down. You may experience inspiring glimpses of freedom from attachment, gain a deeper understanding that nothing material can be a foundation for your happiness, and experience the lightness and ease that comes with this release.
CHAPTER 13
Nature of Mind: Discerning Ultimate Mentality
No other thing do I know, O monks, that changes
so quickly as the mind. It is not easy to give
a simile for how quickly the mind changes.
—Aṅguttara Nikāya202
ONCE YOU HAVE SHARPENED ATTENTION with strong concentration or jhāna, you are ready to apply this hard-won concentration to develop insight. The next step is to gather all the appropriate objects for contemplation. Chapter 12 explored the nature of materiality. Now we shall examine the nature of mentality. This is perhaps the most technical and detailed segment of the training. Please don’t let the long lists or technical terms intimidate you; a patient discernment of these factors and processes will reveal subtle nuances of the mind that are worthy of your careful attention.
Worldly objects are neither intrinsically wholesome nor intrinsically unwholesome. A beautiful sunset, a bitter taste, an overheard argument, a peanut butter cookie, a dead moth, a mother singing a lullaby, a $100 bill—all may prompt a mind to enter fruitful states or unfruitful states. The quality of lived experience is affected by the wholesome or unwholesome mental factors that accompany the cognition. An ice cream sundae could trigger painful craving or it could stimulate joy through virtuous sensory restraint. The sight of a corpse may startle an untrained mind into aversive states or inspire a meditator to enter the wholesome states of jhāna. The smell of road kill might spark fear, disgust, or sadness, or it might lead to a fruitful reflection on impermanence. How you apply your attention will determine whether an object functions as an obstacle or as an asset to concentration. Venerable Pa-Auk Sayadaw explains:
One may go for a walk in the forest, and one may enjoy the flowers, trees, bird singing, and so on, delighting in the “beauty of nature”: that is sensual pleasure. Such consciousnesses are associated with pleasant feeling, but they are greed-rooted consciousness: greed-rooted consciousness is not wholesome; it is unwholesome. If however, one enjoys the forest because it is void of people and therefore suitable for meditation, or if one enjoys beautiful flowers with the wholesome intention to use the individual flower as an object to practice the color kasiṇas, or if one enjoys the forest with the wholesome intention to contemplate the ultimate phenomena of the flowers, and trees (analyzing them into the four great essentials and derived materiality), then to contemplate them as impermanent, suffering, and non-self, that enjoyment is not unwholesome. Also, if one enjoys the beautiful flowers as an offering to the Buddha, the pagoda, the Bodhi tree, or one’s teacher, that is also wholesome. It depends on one’s attention: enjoying flowers for their beauty is pleasant feeling associated with unwise attention; enjoying flowers in the wholesome ways we just explained is pleasant feeling associated with wise attention.203
The primary factor that perpetuates unwise attention is delusion— mistaking experiences to be what they are not. When there is contact with a sensory object, consciousness is supported by a cluster of associated mental factors; this consciousness may be affected by wisdom or delusion. When attention is supported by wisdom, the meditator will be able to delve below the superficial conceptual constructs, to know the experience as it actually is—simply impermanent material and mental phenomena that lack individual substance.
The Abhidhamma analysis provides a carefully drafted map of consciousness and the mental factors that arise with every moment of consciousness.204 This refined model enhances and elaborates on models introduced in the earlier Discourses of the Buddha and defines a precise technical vocabulary used to deconstruct broad conventional concepts into irreducible constituents of experience—factors, functions, components, intervals, causes, and moments. Through meditation we look deeper into the truth of things, rather than settle for superficial, conventional, or broadly sweeping notions. We see the components of existence as raw phenomena. The thrilling precision of this approach is completely devoid of personal drama. Through direct observation you will recognize, with vividness and certainty, that there is no person, me, you, brother, monk, student, or president; no entity; no inherently existing being that possesses experience. Without attachment to our personal narrative, we investigate and map how the mind functions.
THE FIFTY-TWO MENTAL FACTORS
The building blocks of this system include fifty-two primary mental factors, categorized as wholesome, unwholesome, universal, and occasional. When arranged in various combinations, they generate emotions, sensory perceptions, and mental experiences. Each factor represents a piece of the jigsaw puzzle of perception, revealing the complex process of cognition and exposing the conditionality of every conceivable experience.
The fifty-two mental factors always occur in conjunction with consciousness. The relationship between consciousness and the associated mental factors is traditionally compared to a king and his retinue. Although one might say, “the king is coming,” a king does not travel alone. He is always accompanied by attendants. Consciousness and the associated mental factors are functionally interdependent; they will always arise and cease together, have the same object, and share the same sensory base.205
In this book I have chosen to include both consciousness (citta) and the mental factors associated with consciousness (cetasikas) together in the numbering scheme when summarizing the mental formations present in any given mind-moment. It is also a valid approach to list consciousness separately from the associated mental factors. If consciousness had been extracted from the list and counted separately, the tables and exercises would appear to show the mind containing one less mental formation. If you practice carefully, however, not memorizing quantities, but studying the specifics presented in the tables and then actually discerning the constituents of mind, you will know exactly what is present and absent in your mind.
TABLE 13.1
Fifty-Two Mental Factors
The fifty-two mental factors described below are classified as subtle or ultimate realities because the characteristics and functions of each factor are intrinsic to that factor and cannot be further distilled.
Consciousness plus seven associated universal mental factors compose the eight universal mental components of all conscious processes: consciousness (of the object being perceived), contact (of the object being perceived), feeling (of the object being perceived), perception (of the object being perceived), volition (orientated toward the object being perceived), one-pointedness (on the object being perceived), life faculty (that sustains these associated factors as they function to perceive the object), and attention (to the object being perceived). They are universal in the sense that they are required for any cognitive process to occur.
Six occasional mental factors can arise in jhāna or when encountering sensory phenomena: initial application of attention, sustained attention, decision, energy, rapture, and desire. Since they are not present in every mind-moment, they are called occasional factors.
&
nbsp; There are four unwholesome universal mental factors that always arise together and are universally present in any unwholesome cognitive process: delusion, lack of inner conscience or the shamelessness of wrongdoing, fearlessness of wrongdoing or the lack of social or moral concern, and restlessness.
Ten occasional unwholesome factors, in various combinations, can be found in unwholesome states: greed, wrong view, conceit, hatred, envy, possessiveness, worry, sloth, torpor, and doubt. These factors provide the particular character that we might recognize as a stingy impulse, a greedy desire, a dullness to the mind, or regret about an action. These ten occasional factors combine with other associated mental factors in manifestations of the basic root defilements of greed, hatred, and delusion.
There are nineteen beautiful universal factors that arise in all wholesome states. These include faith, mindfulness, shame regarding wrongdoing (a moral conscience that depends on respect for self), fear of wrongdoing (a moral concern that depends on respect for others), nongreed, nonhatred, evenness of mind (equanimity); plus six qualities that are attributed both to the associated mental factors and consciousness: tranquility, lightness, malleability, workability, proficiency, and uprightness. These factors are included in every wholesome state—a moment of generosity, an expression of loving-kindness, a moment with mindful attention to the breath, a reflection on renunciation, concentration on the nimitta—and they manifest vividly in jhāna and vipassanā practice.
The three aspects of abstinence or restraint include right speech, right action, and right livelihood. These factors magnify the mental impulse to not cause harm through our physical and verbal actions. Although they are wholesome factors, they are not universal features of every wholesome state. They arise on occasions when one deliberately refrains from wrongdoing at a time when an opportunity to transgress has arisen. For example, when you have an opportunity to steal, but resist the temptation, the factor of right action has arisen to support restraint. When you have an opportunity to tell a lie, but choose to not deceive your friend, the factor of right speech is supporting restraint. When an unethical business opportunity is present and you choose to pass it by, right livelihood is actively supporting restraint. These three occasional factors are not found in jhāna consciousnesses since in jhāna the object is the counterpart sign (nimitta), not a potential action. These three abstinences also do not arise in the mind of a fully enlightened being (arahant) during mundane activities; because all unwholesome tendencies have been eradicated, there is no need for restraint. They will, however, occur simultaneously with the supramundane path and fruition attainments at all four stages of enlightenment (chapter 18), eliminating any residual disposition to engage in wrong speech, wrong action, or wrong livelihood.
There are two additional factors called immeasurable qualities—compassion (karuṇā) and appreciative joy (muditā)—which are classified as occasional wholesome factors. These provide the unique flavor to states of compassion and appreciative joy, which you may have experienced with the practices introduced in chapter 8. Since loving-kindness and equanimity are classified as specific modes of the factors of nonhatred (loving-kindness), and neutrality (equanimity), they are not designated separately in this list.
And last, but not least, in the list of fifty-two mental factors is nondelusion (amoha), knowledge (ñāṇa), or wisdom (paññā): these terms are used synonymously in the Abhidhamma. The factor of wisdom penetrates phenomena according to their real nature to reveal things as they actually are. This is an occasional factor that does not arise in every state, not even every wholesome state. For example, you might be equanimous and mindful of a sensation but not have penetrated the real nature of that sensation. You may become concentrated upon the color of a yellow flower, but without the support of wisdom you might conceive of the flower as enduring.
MEDITATION INSTRUCTION 13.1
Observing Mind-Body Responses
1. Establish concentration and discern real and unreal matter (rūpa) by reviewing the exercises in chapter 12. Discern the heart base and then look for all the various material phenomena (twenty-eightmaterial phenomena) found in each sense door and throughout the body. As you see the various components of matter, notice that there is a mental process that accompanies the knowing of the matter. Mind and matter function together to enable cognition.
2. Now, focus your attention on the mind that knows the matter. If you see the material objects with the wisdom that recognizes matter as impermanent material formations, wholesome mental factors will arise in conjunction with the perception of that object. Notice those wholesome factors. If the perception of the material phenomena is accompanied by attachment, aversion, lust, or ignorance, unwholesome mental factors will arise. Observe those unwholesome factors.
3. Mental states are not dependent upon the object perceived, but upon how you perceive them. How do you relate to the things that you see, hear, smell, taste, touch, and cognize?
Experiment: Notice a painful sensation of pressure while maintaining the well-grounded perception that it is an impermanent experience that has an excess of earth and wind elements; you’ll find that the mind remains calm and equanimous, and that only wholesome mental states arise. Notice pain again, but entertain a little angst, fear, irritation, or thoughts of blame; you’ll find that unwholesome mental states follow.
It is also possible that an object generally considered beneficial, such as a Buddha image, could trigger wholesome states of faith in a meditator, but anger or fear in a fundamentalist of another religion, or greed in a thief who covets the Buddha image for personal wealth. As the saying goes, “when a thief meets a saint, he only sees his pockets.” Our attitude determines what we perceive and how we interpret it. By what features do you distinguish the difference between a wholesome and unwholesome state?
4. Observe some of the mental states that arise in the course of your day. When you must endure an irritating sound, such as a lawn mower, rather than judging the sound or becoming generally aware of the irritation, try to discern the components that make up irritation. For example you might recognize the presence of hatred, restlessness, a feeling tone, and the absence of delight, malleability, and mindfulness. Try to discern the eighteen or twenty mental factors that compose an angry state (see Table 13.7). Recognize the root of anger that is operating in the moment of contact with the sound. Similarly, when you smell freshly baked apricot strudel, notice the mental factors that are present—a greedy response might include greed, restlessness, delusion, and attention, and not include faith, tranquility, or wisdom. Try to discern the nineteen to twenty-two mental factors that are present when there is greed for sensual pleasure. Contrast your experience of unwholesome mental states with the quality of wholesome mental states. For example, notice your experience while helping someone, giving a gift, or studying Dhamma. Try to discern the thirty-four mental formations that may be present during those wholesome actions. At this initial point in the discerning of mentality, all the details may not yet be clear, but you might already be able to notice the general character of mind during wholesome and unwholesome actions and recognize that each is characterized by a different set of mental factors. The exercises that follow will provide more precise methods for analyzing the subtleties of each state.
MEDITATION INSTRUCTION 13.2
Discerning Mental Formations Characteristic of Jhāna
1. A meditator who has already established jhāna with the breath, a kasiṇa, or the repulsive meditation subjects will find it easiest to begin with the thirty-four mental formations associated with wholesome states (consciousness plus thirty-three associated mental factors). To begin, memorize the list of mental factors associated with jhāna (see Table 13.2). If you had chosen compassion or appreciative joy as your meditation subject, the additional factor of either compassion or appreciative joy would increase the quantity by one additional mental factor in an experience of first jhāna.
2. Establish jhāna meditation using the breath or a kas
iṇa of your choice. Upon emerging from absorption direct your attention to the heart base. When the nimitta appears in the heart base, discern the relevant jhāna factors. You will find five jhāna factors in the first jhāna (vitakka, vicāra, pīti, sukha, ekaggatā), three jhāna factors in the second jhāna (pīti, sukha, ekaggatā), two jhāna factors in both the third (sukha, ekaggatā) and the fourth (upekkhā, ekaggatā) jhānas. You might recall that when you first learned to discern the jhāna factors in the mind door (chapter 4), you did so one at a time by repeatedly shifting back and forth between absorption and discerning the jhāna factors at the mind door until you could easily recognize which were present and which were absent.
TABLE 13.2
Mental Formations Associated with Jhāna
3. Proceed in a similar manner to discern each of the wholesome factors associated with jhāna. In this practice you will be alternating between moments when the mind is absorbed in jhāna and moments of actively discerning mental factors. Contemplate the factors in a cumulative but sequential order. First discern consciousness; include contact, so you are discerning consciousness and contact together; include feeling, so you are discerning consciousness, contact, and feeling together; include perception, so you are discerning consciousness, contact, feeling, and perception together. Continue until you are observing all the factors at a glance.
4. With the breath or a kasiṇa as object, you will find thirty-one mental formations in the third, fourth, and immaterial jhānas; thirty-two formations in the second jhāna; and thirty-four for-mations in the first jhāna (see Table 13.2). If you are analyzing karuṇā or muditā jhānas as the base, the additional factor of compassion or appreciative joy will be obvious. To genuinely discern these factors you must return to jhāna frequently so that the nimitta continues to appear in the mind door at the heart base. It may feel as though you are merely touching into jhāna; a few seconds in jhāna will be enough. This exercise emphasizes discerning mental formations, not sustained absorption; however, you must still enter jhāna, if only briefly, to generate the formations that you will discern. You might then observe the factors in groupings, frequently moving back and forth between the modes of absorption and discernment. With practice you will learn to perceive all the wholesome jhāna factors at a glance as easily as you can see ten fingers when you stretch out your hands.
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