(9) Christian participation in God’s purpose of establishing his kingdom is portrayed in Revelation as a matter of witness, primarily verbal, but substantiated by life. It should not surprise us that possibilities of changing society by the use of power and influence in accordance with the values of God’s kingdom are not envisaged. It is doubtful whether this should be attributed to the apocalyptic perception of the world, as it often is, as though it would otherwise have been possible to see things differently. This feature of the so-called apocalyptic perception of the world corresponded to the realistic situation of Christians in the first-century Roman Empire and for that reason persists in Revelation, which otherwise modifies the apocalyptic perception of the world in many ways, including the idea of the church’s witness to the world. Of course, in other situations, different possibilities of serving God’s kingdom in the world open up. They do so as a quite natural extension of Revelation’s concept of witness as involving obedience to God’s commandments, that is, embodying his kingdom in life. But Revelation’s reminder that Christian participation in the coming of God’s kingdom is not dependent on power and influence remains important. The essential form of Christian witness, which cannot be replaced by any other, is consistent loyalty to God’s kingdom. In this powerless witness the power of truth to defeat lies comes into its own. Legitimate power and influence are certainly not to be despised, but the temptations of power are best resisted when the priority of faithful witness is maintained.
(10) In Revelation’s universal perspective, the doctrines of creation, redemption and eschatology are very closely linked. It is God the Creator of all reality who, in faithfulness to his creation, acts in Christ to reclaim and renew his whole creation. Because he is creation’s Alpha he will also be its Omega. The scope of his new creation is as universal as the scope of creation. It is as Creator that he claims his universal kingdom. It is as Creator that he can renew his creation, taking it beyond the threat of evil and nothingness into the eternity of his own presence. An important contribution of Revelation to New Testament theology is that it puts the New Testament’s central theme of salvation in Christ clearly into its total biblical–theological context of the Creator’s purpose for his whole creation. This is a perspective that needs recovering today.
(11) Throughout this study we have stressed not only Revelation’s theocentricity, which means that all other aspects of its vision of the world stem from its understanding of God, but also that this understanding of God is itself a sophisticated product of serious theological reflection. Sadly, this doctrine of God has been the most misunderstood feature of a much misunderstood book. Revelation has the most developed trinitarian theology in the New Testament, with the possible exception of the Gospel of John, and is all the more valuable for demonstrating the development of trinitarianism quite independently of hellenistic philosophical categories. It has a powerful, apophatic perception of the transcendence of God which entirely avoids and surmounts current criticism of monarchical images of transcendence. At the same time as it withholds the glory of God from a world in which the powers of evil still hold sway, it recognizes the presence of God in this present world in the form of the slaughtered Lamb and the seven Spirits who inspire the church’s witness. By placing the Lamb on the throne and the seven Spirits before the throne it gives sacrificial love and witness to truth the priority in the coming of God’s kingdom in the world, while at the same time the openness of the creation to the divine transcendence guarantees the coming of the kingdom. God’s rule does not contradict human freedom, as the coercive tyranny of the beast does, but finds its fulfilment in the participation of people in God’s rule: that is, in the coincidence of theonomy and autonomy. Finally, the divine transcendence does not prevent but makes possible the eschatological destiny of creation to exist in immediate relation to God, his immanent presence its glory and its eternal life. This recapitulation of the main points in the understanding of God which has been expounded throughout this study are intended to suggest that Revelation has an unexpected theological relevance today: it can help to inspire the renewal of the doctrine of God which is perhaps the most urgent contemporary theological need.
* * *
1 For Revelation in art, see M. R. James, The Apocalypse in Art (London: Oxford University Press, 1931); F. van der Meer, Apocalypse: Visions from the Book of Revelation in Western Art (London: Thames & Hudson, 1978); R. Petraglio et al, L’Apocalypse de Jean: traditions exégétiques et iconographiques IIIe–XIIIe siècles (Geneva: Librairie Droz, 1979). Though the text is a somewhat eccentric treatment of Revelation, G. Quispel, The Secret Book of Revelation (London: Collins, 1979) is illustrated magnificently with very many examples from the history of western art. Although the influence of Revelation on liturgy and hymns has been considerable, I do not know of any studies. One hymn-writer wrote a devotional commentary on Revelation, interspersed with verse: C. Rossetti, The Face of the Deep (London: SPCK, 4th edn, 1902).
2 See, e.g., W. H. C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church (Oxford: Blackwell, 1965); R. Bauckham, Tudor Apocalypse (Appleford: Sutton Courtenay Press, 1978), especially chapter 2. A commentary on Revelation which applies it to a modern situation of oppression (the suffering of black South Africans under apartheid) is A. A. Boesak, Comfort and Protest (Edinburgh: Saint Andrew Press, 1987). Note also the inspiration from Revelation in American black slave spirituals (G. S. Wilmore, Last Things First (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1972) 77–8) and in the prison meditations of Rumanian pastor Richard Wurmbrand, Sermons in Solitary Confinement (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1969), especially pp. 87, 180.
3 For the medieval and early modern periods, see M. Reeves, ‘The Development of Apocalyptic Thought: Medieval Attitudes’; J. Pelikan, ‘Some Uses of the Apocalypse in the Magisterial Reformers’; and B. Capp, ‘The Political Dimension of Apocalyptic Thought’, all in C. A. Patrides and J. Wittreich, The Apocalypse in English Renaissance Thought and Literature (Manchester University Press, 1984), 40–124 (with references to other literature). For a modern example, see Daniel Berrigan, Beside the Sea of Glass: The Song of the Lamb (New York: Seabury Press, 1978). See also C. Rowland and M. Corner, Liberating Exegesis: The Challenge of Liberation Theology to Biblical Studies (London: SPCK, 1990), chapter 4; O. O’Donovan, ‘The Political Thought of the Book of Revelation’, TynB 37 (1986), 61–94.
4 R. Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament, vol. 11, trans. K. Grobel (London: SCM Press, 1955), 175.
5 Cf. J. D. G. Dunn, The Partings of the Ways (London: SCM Press, 1991).
6 It is a misunderstanding found both in the ‘historicist’ tradition of interpretation, which reads Revelation as a symbolic account of the whole history of the church from the time of writing to the parousia (for this tradition in the sixteenth century, see Bauckham, Tudor Apocalypse, especially chapter 4; and for a great classic of this tradition, see the four volumes of E. B. Elliott, Horae Apocalypticae (London: Seeley, Jackson & Halliday, 5th edn, 1862), and in the ‘futurist’ tradition of interpretation, which reads Revelation as a symbolic account of the last few years of history prior to the parousia (for an extraordinarily popular recent version of this tradition, see Hal Lindsey, The Late Great Planet Earth (London: Lakeland, 1971), and the critique in C. Vanderwaal, Hal Lindsey and Biblical Prophecy (Ontario: Paideia, 1978)).
7 Note, e.g., the allusions to Revelation in the Letter of the Churches of Lyons and Vienne (ap. Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 5. 1. 1–5.4.3), one of the earliest accounts of martyrdoms – especially the allusions to Rev. 14:4 (5.1.10) and Rev. 1:5; 3:14 (5.2.3).
8 R. Bauckham, ‘The Economic Critique of Rome in Revelation 18’, in L. Alexander ed., Images of Empire (JSOTSS 122; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991), 58–79, which is chapter 10 in Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy.
9 See further R. Bauckham, ‘The Delay of the Parousia’, TynB 31 (1980), 3–36.
Further reading
The following books and articles are some of the more useful for stud
ying specifically the theology of Revelation.
Barr, D. L. ‘The Apocalypse as a Symbolic Transformation of the World: A Literary Analysis’, Int. 38 (1984), 39–50.
‘The Apocalypse of John as Oral Enactment’, Int. 40 (1986), 243–56.
Bauckham, R. The Climax of Prophecy: Studies on the Book of Revelation. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1992. A collection of essays, many of which develop aspects of the argument of the present book at greater length.
Beasley-Murray, G. R. The Book of Revelation. NCB. London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1974. A reliable commentary which is alert to theological issues.
Boring, M. E. ‘The Theology of Revelation: “The Lord Our God the Almighty Reigns’ ”, Int. 40 (1986), 257–69.
Bovon, F. ‘Le Christ de L’Apocalypse’, RTP 21 (1972), 65–80.
Caird, G. B. A Commentary on the Revelation of St John the Divine. BNTC. London: A & C. Black, 1966. A commentary notable for its attempt to read Revelation as a thoroughly Christian reinterpretation of Old Testament images and themes.
Comblin, J. Le Christ dans l’Apocalypse. Bibliothèque de Théologie: Théologie biblique 3/6. Paris: Desclée, 1976. This major study of the Christology (and related themes) of Revelation was written independently of that of Holtz (see next item). An appended note (pp. 237–40) points out Comblin’s differences from Holtz.
Holtz, T. Die Christologie der Apokalypse des Johannes. TU 85. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1962. The standard, very thorough study of its subject, which nevertheless can be usefully complemented by Comblin’s rather different approach (see preceding item).
‘Gott in der Apokalypse’, in J. Lambrecht, ed., L’Apocalyptique johannique et l’Apocalyptique dans le Nouveau Testament. BETL 53; Gembloux: Duculot and Leuven: University Press, 1980, 247–65.
Mazzaferri, F. D. The Genre of the Book of Revelation from a Source-Critical Perspective. BZNW 54. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter, 1989. Though primarily concerned with arguing that Revelation belongs to the literary genre of prophecy, this study is broader than its title suggests and has much insight into many issues of interpretation.
Minear, P. S. ‘Ontology and Ecclesiology in the Apocalypse’, NTS 12 (1966), 89–105.
I Saw a New Earth: An Introduction to the Visions of the Apocalypse. Washington and Cleveland: Corpus, 1968. Though Minear’s thesis that Revelation is not a critique of the Roman Empire but solely of the church fails finally to convince, this is a book packed with fresh and sensitive insight.
Rissi, M. Time and History: A Study of the Revelation. Trans. G. C. Winsor. Richmond, Virginia: John Knox Press, 1966. This is an attempt to fit Revelation into a heilsgeschichtliche (salvation–historical) theological framework.
Schüssler Fiorenza, E. The Book of Revelation: Justice and Judgment. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985. A collection of major essays by one of the foremost American experts on Revelation.
Sweet, J. P. M. Revelation. SCM Pelican Commentaries. London: SCM Press, 1979. Sweet’s interpretation is in the tradition of G. B. Caird and Austin Farrer (whose best insights he extracts from the more eccentric), and is notably alert to the significance of Old Testament allusions and the range of associations of the imagery. Probably the best short English commentary.
‘Maintaining the Testimony of jesus: the Suffering of Christians in the Revelation of John’, in W. Horbury and B. McNeil, ed., Suffering and Martyrdom in the New Testament: Studies presented to G. M. Styler. Cambridge University Press, 1981, 101–17.
Trites, A. A. The New Testament Concept of Witness. SNTSMS 31. Cambridge University Press, 1977. Chapter 10. The most important study of this theme in Revelation.
Vögtle, A. ‘Der Gott der Apokalypse: Wie redet die christliche Apokalypse von Gott’, in J. Coppens, ed., La Notion biblique de Dieu: Le Dieu de la Bible et le Dieu des philosophes. BETL 41; Gembloux: Duculot and Leuven: University Press, 1976, 377–98.
Yarbro Collins, A. Crisis and Catharsis: The Power of the Apocalypse. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1984. An attempt to understand the message of the book in sociological and psychological terms.
Index
angels 33–4, 41, 46, 48, 59–60, 64, 8–2, 86, 94, 110, 114, 120–1, 155
anthropomorphism 43, 164
apocalypse, Revelation as an 1, 5–12
apocalypses, Jewish 1, 4, 5–12, 31, 59, 70, 149
apophaticism 43, 164
Babylon 5, 20–1, 27, 35, 52, 86, 89, 91, 95, 101–3, 116, 123–33, 135, 138–9, 152, 155–6, 160
Balaam 72, 124
beast 19, 21, 35–38, 47, 52–53, 70, 78, 84, 88–91, 93, 97, 100, 102–8, 111–12, 114–15, 123–5, 127–8, 138, 142, 152–3, 155, 160, 164
worship of 15, 34, 37, 45, 48, 73, 93–5, 98, 100, 105, 115, 155
beast, second (the false prophet) 38, 78, 91, 102, 106, 112, 114–15, 123–4, 155
church, churches 75, 83–4, 98, 104, 113–15, 117–25, 127–8, 140, 144–5, 149, 155, 162
cities 7, 126–32, 135–6
conquering see victory
conversion of the nations 84, 86–7, 98–104, 120, 138–9, 145, 149, 161
creation 47–53, 163–4
Daniel 5, 11–12, 97, 106, 127
delay, eschatological 154, 157–8
Deutero-Isaiah 27, 55–6, 58, 71, 73
devil 105–6, 107, 123–5; see also dragon, Satan
doxologies 61–2, 136
dragon 19, 52, 78, 89–91, 112, 114–15, 127, 155
earthquake 20–1, 42
elders (twenty-four) 32, 34, 47–8, 60, 142
Elijah 85, 87, 120
evil 8–9, 40, 46–7, 52–3, 64, 68, 75, 89–91, 102, 106, 141, 157, 163
exodus 20, 70–2, 75, 79, 88, 98–101, 104
Ezekiel 4, 11, 32–3, 41, 51, 81, 116, 134, 136–8
false prophet see beast, second
Flood 50–3
four: number of the world 66–7, 109
God
appearance of 32
as Creator 27, 33, 47–53, 60, 73, 163–4
as the Alpha and the Omega 25–8, 45, 51
as the beginning and the end 26–7
as the Lord God Almighty 25, 30
as the One who is and who was and who is to come 25, 28–30, 45, 63
as the One who lives for ever 141
as the One who sits on the throne 31–4, 41, 46–7, 75, 114, 140, 142
as trinitarian 23–5, 164
eschatological presence of 46–7, 53, 132, 136–8, 140–2, 164
eternity of 28–30, 41
face of 142
faithfulness to creation 51–3
glory of 46–7, 131, 134–6, 140–1
holiness of 32–3, 40–3, 82, 140–1, 163
incomparability of 27, 39, 43–4, 50, 99–100
kingdom of see kingdom of God
lordship over history 8–9, 27, 30–1, 39, 43–7, 73
love of 123, 141
name of (YHWH) 27–8, 30
omnipotence of 8, 30
righteousness of 39, 43, 47, 158
transcendence of 32, 43–7, 51, 160, 164
harlot of Babylon 17–18, 35–7, 52, 130
heaven 7–8, 30–4, 39, 41–2, 64, 73, 91, 105, 116, 140, 160
Hermas 144
idolatry 27, 34–5, 39, 46, 58, 72–3, 86, 94, 100, 114–21, 123, 160–2
imagery in Revelation 9–10, 17–22, 93, 103, 108, 150–1, 159
imminence, eschatological 157–9
imperial cult 34, 37–8
Isaiah 11, 27, 32–3, 41, 46, 49–50, 68, 78, 95, 99, 134, 136, 138, 141, 154; see also Deutero-Isaiah
Jeremiah 153
Jerusalem 86, 126–7, 129, 133, 156
Jesus Christ
as Davidic Messiah 66–9, 73–4, 76
as divine 23–4, 54–65
as judge 105, 123
as ‘one like a son of man’ 97–8
as the Alpha and the Omega 26, 54–8
as the beginning and the end 26, 54–8
as the f
irst and the last 26–7, 54–8
as the Lamb 32, 47, 64–7, 70–2, 74–81, 87, 91–2, 94–6, 99, 101, 104–6, 109, 112–13, 118, 127, 131, 140, 163–4
as witness 72–3, 75–6, 78–9, 104–6, 114–15, 122–3
death of 55–6, 60, 64, 67, 70–6, 85–7, 144–5
humanity of 66
parousia of 56–8, 63–4, 67, 70, 102, 104–5, 123, 154, 157
resurrection of 55–6, 57, 60, 67, 70, 73, 87, 144–5
role in creation 55–6, 58
worship of 58–63
Jews 122, 124–5, 128–9
Jezebel 2, 16, 18, 120, 122–4
Joel 20, 95
Josephus 28
judgment, judgments 15, 20–1, 40–3, 52, 64, 66, 71, 73, 82, 86, 94–9, 101–6, 122–3, 139, 141, 149, 154, 157
jus talionis 52
kingdom of God 9, 15, 31, 34, 40, 46–7, 64, 67–8, 70, 73–4, 80, 83, 88, 98–9, 101, 104, 111, 113, 121, 138, 142–3, 145, 149–50, 152, 154–9, 161–4
kings of the earth 69, 96, 102, 129, 131, 135, 138–9
letter, Revelation as a 2, 12–17, 23–4
living creatures (four) 32–4, 41, 46, 60, 142
martyrdom, martyrs 38–9, 71–2, 75–88, 90–4, 98–100, 104, 106–8, 115, 119, 127–8, 139, 147, 151, 155–6
millennium 106–8
monotheism, Jewish 24, 27, 32, 48, 58–62
Moses 71, 85, 99, 100–2, 120
Nero 21, 37
new creation 49–51, 57–8, 133, 135, 140–1, 160, 163
New Jerusalem 14, 46, 88, 103, 116, 126–43, 154, 160
Nicolaitans 123–5
Old Testament 4–5, 8, 18, 21, 31, 64, 68, 78, 104, 112, 132, 139, 144–5, 147–8
paradise 132–5
Parthians 19–20, 152
Patmos 4, 12
persecution of Christians 4, 15, 38, 151
Philo 27–8
power, absolutizing of 37–8, 43–5, 90, 160
The Theology of the Book of Revelation Page 20