by Charles Lane
Parrillo, Nicholas. Against the Profit Motive: The Salary Revolution in American Government, 1780–1940. New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 2013.
Parsons, Elaine Frantz. Ku-Klux: The Birth of the Klan during Reconstruction. Chapel Hill NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2015.
Pinkerton, Allan. Thirty Years a Detective. New York: G. W. Dillingham, 1884.
Prince, K. Stephen, ed. Radical Reconstruction: A Brief History with Documents. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2016.
Rable, George C. But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction. Athens GA: University of Georgia Press, 1984.
Rossiter, Clinton L., ed. The Federalist Papers: Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay. New York: Mentor, 1999.
Slide, Anthony. American Racist: The Life and Films of Thomas Dixon. Lexington KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2004.
Smith, Jean Edward. Grant. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001.
Stampp, Kenneth M. The Era of Reconstruction, 1865–1877. New York: Vintage, 1965.
Swinney, Everette. Suppressing the Ku Klux Klan: The Enforcement of the Reconstruction Amendments, 1870–1877. New York: Garland, 1987.
Tarnoff, Ben. A Counterfeiter’s Paradise: The Wicked Lives and Surprising Adventures of Three Early American Moneymakers. New York: Penguin Books, 2011.
Telfair, Nancy. A History of Columbus, Georgia, 1828–1928. Columbus GA: Historical Publishing Company, 1929.
Trefousse, Hans L. Andrew Johnson: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton, 1989.
Trelease, Allen W. White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction. Baton Rouge LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1971.
Tsouras, Peter G., ed. Scouting for Grant and Meade: The Reminiscences of Judson Knight, Chief of Scouts, Army of the Potomac. New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2014.
Vidocq, Eugène François. Memoirs. Baltimore: Carey, Hart & Co., 1834.
Way, Frederick. Way’s Packet Directory, 1848–1939. Athens OH: Ohio University Press, 1983.
Webb, Ross A. Benjamin Helm Bristow: Border State Politician. Lexington KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1969.
Wellman, Manly Wade. The County of Moore, 1847–1947: A North Carolina Region’s Second Hundred Years. Southern Pines NC: Moore County Historical Association, 1962.
West, Jerry. The Reconstruction Ku Klux Klan in York County, South Carolina, 1865–1877. Jefferson NC: McFarland & Co., 2002.
White, Richard. The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States during Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1896. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.
Whitley, Hiram C. In It. Cambridge MA: Riverside Press, 1894.
Whyte, James H. The Uncivil War: Washington during the Reconstruction, 1865–1878. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1958.
Williams, Lou Falkner. The Great South Carolina Ku Klux Klan Trials, 1871–1872. Athens GA: University of Georgia Press, 1996.
Woolen, William Wesley. William McKee Dunn, Brigadier-General, U. S. A.; A Memoir. New York: Putnam, 1892.
Worsley, Etta Blanchard. Columbus on the Chattahoochee. Columbus GA: Columbus Office Supply Company, 1951.
Zuczek, Richard. State of Rebellion: Reconstruction in South Carolina. Columbia SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1996.
Articles
Ansley, Norman. “The United States Secret Service: An Administrative History.” Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 47, no. 1 (May–June 1956): 93–109.
Bagger, Louis. “The ‘Secret Service’ of the United States.” Appletons’ Journal 10, no. 235 (Sept. 20, 1873): 360–65.
Blain, William T. “Challenge to the Lawless: The Mississippi Secret Service, 1870–1871.” Mississippi Quarterly 40, no. 2 (May 1978): 119–31.
Bond, Almand. “The Ashburn Murder Case and Military Trial.” Georgia Bar Journal 10 (Aug. 1947): 43–48.
Boynton, H. V. “The Washington ‘Safe Burglary’ Conspiracy.” American Law Review XI, no. 3 (Apr. 1877): 401–46.
Buttaro, Andrew. “The Posse Comitatus Act of 1878 and the End of Reconstruction.” St. Mary’s Law Journal 47 (2015): 135–86.
Cohen, Andrew Wender. “Smuggling, Globalization, and America’s Outward State, 1870–1909.” Journal of American History 97, no. 2 (2010): 371–98.
Cresswell, Stephen. “Enforcing the Enforcement Acts: The Department of Justice in Northern Mississippi, 1870–1890.” Journal of Southern History 53, no. 3 (1987): 421–40.
Dailey, Douglass C. “The Elections of 1872 in North Carolina.” North Carolina Historical Review 40, no. 3 (July 1963): 338–60.
Davis, Curtis Carroll. “The Craftiest of Men: William P. Wood and the Establishment of the United States Secret Service.” Maryland Historical Magazine 83, no. 2 (Summer 1988): 111–26.
Davis, Henry E. “The Safe Burglary Case: An Episode and a Factor in the District’s Development.” Records of the Columbia Historical Society 25 (1923): 140–81.
Jackson, Joy J. “Keeping Law and Order in New Orleans under General Butler, 1862.” Louisiana History 34, no. 1 (Winter 1993): 51–67.
Jaeger, Jens. “Photography: A Means of Surveillance? Judicial Photography, 1850–1900.” Crime, History & Societies 5, no. 1 (2001): 27–51.
Kaczorowski, Robert J. “Federal Enforcement of Civil Rights during the First Reconstruction.” Fordham Urban Law Journal 23, no. 1 (1995): 155–86.
Lane, Roger. “Urban Police and Crime in Nineteenth-Century America.” Crime and Justice 15 (1992): 1–50.
Massengill, Stephen E. “The Detectives of William W. Holden, 1869–1870.” North Carolina Historical Review 62, no. 4 (Oct. 1985): 448–87.
Obert, Jonathan. “A Fragmented Force: The Evolution of Federal Law Enforcement in the United States, 1870–1900.” Journal of Policy History 29, no. 4 (Oct. 2017): 640–75.
Pearl, Matthew. “K Troop: The Story of the Eradication of the Original Ku Klux Klan.” Slate, Mar. 4, 2016.
Swinney, Everette. “Enforcing the Fifteenth Amendment, 1870–1877.” Journal of Southern History 28, no. 2 (May 1962): 202–18.
Vazzano, Frank P. “President Hayes, Congress, and the Appropriations Riders Vetoes.” Congress and the Presidency 20, no. 1 (Spring 1993): 25–37.
Williamson, Edward C. “William D. Chipley, West Florida’s Mr. Railroad.” Florida Historical Quarterly 25, no. 4 (Apr. 1947): 333–55.
Zuczek, Richard. “The Federal Government’s Attack on the Ku Klux Klan: A Reassessment.” South Carolina Historical Magazine 97, no. 1 (Jan. 1996): 47–64.
Newspapers and Periodicals
Atlanta Constitution
Baltimore Sun
Bank Note Reporter
Boston Herald
Brooklyn Eagle
Carolina Era (Raleigh NC)
Carolina Watchman (Salisbury NC)
Centinel of Freedom (Newark NJ)
Charleston (SC) Daily News
Charlotte Democrat
Chicago Tribune
Cincinnati Commercial Tribune
Cincinnati Daily Enquirer
Cincinnati Daily Gazette
Cincinnati Daily Times
Cleveland Leader
Cleveland Plain Dealer
Congressional Globe
Congressional Record
Daily Argus (Albany NC)
Daily Carolinian (Raleigh NC)
Daily Phoenix (Columbia SC)
Daily Sun (Columbus GA)
Emporia Gazette
Evening Star (Washington DC)
Fayetteville (NC) Eagle
Forney’s Sunday Chronicle (Washington DC)
Freeman’s Champion (Prairie City KS)
Greensboro Patriot
Harper’s Weekly
Herald of Freedom (Lawrence KS)
Indiana State Se
ntinel (Indianapolis IN)
Liberator (Boston MA)
Louisville Courier-Journal
Macon Weekly Telegraph
Milwaukee Sentinel
Morning Star (Wilmington NC)
National Police Gazette
National Republican (Washington DC)
New Orleans Daily Picayune
New York Evening Post
New York Herald
New York Sun
New York Times
New York Tribune
New York World
North Carolinian (Elizabeth City NC)
Philadelphia Inquirer
Pittsburgh Weekly Gazette
Pomeroy’s Democrat (Chicago IL)
Raleigh Daily Standard
Raleigh News
Raleigh Sentinel
Rocky Mountain Gazette (Helena MT)
Rutherford Star (Rutherfordton NC)
Southern Home (Charlotte NC)
Southerner (Tarboro NC)
Topeka Daily Capital
Tri-Weekly Era (Raleigh NC)
Washington Daily Critic
Weekly Kansas Chief (Troy KS)
Weekly Pioneer (Asheville NC)
Wheeling Register
Wilmington (NC) Journal
Wilmington (NC) Post
Theses and Dissertations
Brisson, Jim D. “The Kirk-Holden War of 1870 and the Failure of Reconstruction in North Carolina.” M.A. thesis, University of North Carolina, Wilmington, 2010.
Hamilton, Lois Neal. “Amos T. Akerman and His Role in American Politics.” M.A. thesis, Columbia University, 1939.
Kemmerling, James Delbert. “A History of the Whitley Opera House in Kansas, 1881–1913.” M.S. thesis, Kansas State Teachers College, 1967.
Moore, T. Ross. “The Congressional Career of James B. Beck, 1867–1875.” M.A. thesis, University of Kentucky, 1950.
Proctor, Bradley David. “Whip, Pistol, and Hood: Ku Klux Klan Violence in the Carolinas during Reconstruction.” Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 2013.
NOTES
Prologue
This description of Hiram C. Whitley’s mission in Virginia moonshiner country and subsequent events, including his meeting with President Grant, derives from Hiram C. Whitley, In It (Cambridge MA: Riverside Press, 1894), 92–101.
George P. Burnham, Memoirs of the United States Secret Service (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1872), 33.
George S. Boutwell to Hiram C. Whitley, May 6, 1869, U.S. Secret Service Archives, Washington DC; Untitled news item, Alexandria (VA) Gazette, May 6, 1869; “Affairs in the Government Departments,” National Intelligencer, May 13, 1869.
Chapter 1
U.S. Congress, Sen. Repts., 42d Cong., 2d sess., no. 41, “Report of the Joint Select Committee to Inquire into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States” (Hereafter cited as “KKK Hearings”), Vol. 6, 451–53 (Testimony of J. H. Caldwell).
“A Dark and Bloody Tragedy,” Cincinnati Daily Gazette, Apr. 21, 1868.
“G.W. Ashburn, of Georgia,” Raleigh Daily Standard, Apr. 10, 1868.
“Letter from Washington,” Massachusetts Spy, Apr. 10, 1868.
Allen C. Guelzo, Reconstruction: A Concise History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 25.
Allen Trelease, White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction (Baton Rouge LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1971), 3–27.
Ibid., 50.
“Rebel Vengeance in Georgia,” Cincinnati Daily Gazette, Apr. 9, 1868.
This account of the murder of George W. Ashburn derives from the following sources: U.S. Army Department of the South, Major General Meade’s Report on the Ashburn Murder (1868) (Hereafter cited as “Gen. Meade’s Book”), passim; Anonymous, The Nation’s Peril: The Ku Klux Klan (New York: n.p., 1872), 65–69; Anonymous, Radical Rule: Military Outrage in Georgia (Louisville KY: John Morton & Co., 1868) (Hereafter cited as “Radical Rule”), passim; Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (U.S. Army), Record Group 153, Court Martial Case Files, George W. Ashburn court martial transcript, National Archives, Washington DC, passim; Trelease, White Terror, passim; William A. Link, Atlanta, Cradle of the New South: Race and Remembering in the Civil War’s Aftermath (Chapel Hill NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 93–95; Nancy Telfair, A History of Columbus, Georgia: 1828–1928 (Columbus GA: Historical Publishing Company, 1929), 155–72; Etta Blanchard Worsley, Columbus on the Chattahoochee (Columbus GA: Columbus Office Supply Company, 1951), 311–15; KKK Hearings, Vol. 6, 451–53 (Testimony of J. H. Caldwell); “The Leader of Radicalism in Georgia,” Daily Sun (Columbus GA), Aug. 22, 1866; “Georgia Negro-Radical Convention,” Macon Weekly Telegraph, Jan. 17, 1868; “The Murder of George W. Ashburn of Georgia,” New York Times, Apr. 6, 1868; “Rebel Vengeance in Georgia,” Cincinnati Daily Gazette, Apr. 9, 1868; “The Killing of George W. Ashburn,” Daily Sun (Columbus GA), Apr. 1, 1868; “A Dark and Bloody Tragedy,” Cincinnati Daily Gazette, Apr. 21, 1868; “The Ku-Klux Klan: Trial of the Prisoners Charged with the Murder of George W. Ashburn,” New York Tribune, July 3, 1868; KKK Hearings, Vol. 6, 532–35 (Testimony of Hannah Flournoy); KKK Hearings, Vol. 7, 1031–42 (Testimony of Henry McNeal Turner).
“A Dark and Bloody Tragedy,” Cincinnati Daily Gazette, Apr. 21, 1868.
“The Ku-Klux-Klan,” Detroit Advertiser & Tribune, Apr. 17, 1868.
“Political Murders in the South,” New York Times, Apr. 7, 1868.
Capt. William Mills to Gen. George G. Meade, Mar. 31, 1868, Gen. Meade’s Book, 6.
“The Killing of George W. Ashburn,” Daily Sun (Columbus GA), Apr. 1, 1868.
Ibid.
Capt. William Mills to Gen. George G. Meade, Apr. 10, 1868, Gen. Meade’s Book, 12.
Telfair, History of Columbus, 160.
“Recent Scenes in Georgia,” Massachusetts Spy, May 15, 1868.
Ibid.
Guelzo, Reconstruction, 62.
Gen. George G. Meade to Gen. U. S. Grant, Apr. 4, 1868, Gen. Meade’s Book, 8–9.
Gen. George G. Meade to Gen. U. S. Grant, Apr. 13, 1868, ibid., 16–17.
William H. Reed to Gen. George G. Meade, Apr. 22, 1868, ibid., 20–21.
Gen. U. S. Grant to Gen. George G. Meade, Apr. 23, 1868, ibid., 22.
Chapter 2
For an excellent overview of federal policing in the nineteenth century, see Jonathan Obert, “A Fragmented Force: The Evolution of Federal Law Enforcement in the United States, 1870–1900,” Journal of Policy History 29, no. 4 (Oct. 2017), 640–75.
Lawrence Friedman, Crime and Punishment in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 204–208.
On the career of Eugène François Vidocq, see Michael Dirda, “The First Detective: A Devil Extraordinaire,” review of The First Detective, by James Morton, Washington Post, June 2, 2011; Clive Emsley, “From Ex-Con to Expert: The Police Detective in Nineteenth-Century France,” in Clive Emsley and Haia Shpayer-Makov, eds., Police Detectives in History, 1750–1950 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006), 61–78; Eugène François Vidocq, Memoirs (Baltimore: Carey, Hart & Co., 1834).
A vast literature covers the lives and careers of Allan Pinkerton and Lafayette Baker. For concise biographies, see Norman Polmar and Thomas B. Allen, Spy Book: The Encyclopedia of Espionage (New York: Random House, 1997), 45, 439–40.
“Solicitor Jordan’s Detective Force,” New York World, July 8, 1867.
The account of the Doy party’s ambush is derived from: John Doy, The Narrative of John Doy of Lawrence, Kansas (New York: Thomas Holman, 1860); “From Kansas,” Milwaukee Sentinel, Feb. 11, 1859; “Old Brown,” New York Herald-Tribune, Feb. 12, 1859; “Kansas Intelliience [sic],” Cleveland Leader, Feb. 15, 1859; “The Kidnapping of Dr. Doy and Son,”
Liberator (Boston MA), Feb. 18, 1859; “From the Kansas Prisoners,” New York Herald-Tribune, Feb. 19, 1859; “Letter from Dr. Doy and Son: A Painful Statement,” Liberator (Boston MA), Mar. 18, 1859; “Trial of Dr. Doy—Read This!” Liberator (Boston MA), July 22, 1859; “Betrayer of Dr. Doy,” Chicago Tribune, Sept. 1, 1859; “From Kansas,” New York Times, Sept. 2, 1859; Untitled news item, Portland (ME) Advertiser, Sept. 13, 1859; “The Letter Writers on Lawrence,” Herald of Freedom (Lawrence KS), Oct. 1, 1859; “H.C. Whitley, or What’s His Name,” National Republican, Apr. 11, 1876; “Whitley,” Weekly Kansas Chief (Troy KS), May 4, 1876; “The Famous Doy Rescue,” Kansas City (KS) Journal, June 3, 1895.
Freeman’s Champion (Prairie City KS), Feb. 4, 1858 (advertisement for “The Boston Dining Saloon”).
Hiram C. Whitley’s biographical information derives from: Pension File for Hiram C. Whitley, Records of the Veterans Administration, Records Relating to Pensions and Bounty Claims, Record Group 15, National Archives, Washington DC (Hereafter cited as “Whitley Pension File”); U.S. Congress, Sen. Repts., 42d Cong., 2d sess., no. 227, “Testimony in Relation to the Alleged Frauds in the New York Custom House Taken by the Committee on Investigation and Retrenchment,” Vol. 2 (Hereafter cited as “Custom House Hearing”), 719–23 (Testimony of H. C. Whitley); Burnham, Memoirs, 13–41; Whitley, In It, passim; “Counterfeiting,” New York Herald, Dec. 19, 1871; “The Whitleys’ Anniversary: Sixtieth Wedding Anniversary Observed by Quiet Day with Children and Grandchildren,” Emporia Gazette, Mar. 25, 1916; “Whitley,” Weekly Kansas Chief (Troy KS), May 4, 1876; “Was Chief of Secret Service,” Topeka Daily Capital, Aug. 11, 1907; 1870 U.S. Census for Cambridge, Middlesex County, MA; Burke Aaron Hinsdale, “The History of Popular Education in the Western Reserve,” An Address Delivered in the Series of Educational Conferences Held in Association Hall, Cleveland, Sept. 7 and 8, 1896, 50; “Hiram C. Whitley,” in William E. Connelley, A Standard History of Kansas and Kansans, Vol. V (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Company, 1918), 2217–19; “Hiram C. Whitley,” in Frank W. Blackmar, ed., Kansas: A Cyclopedia of State History, Embracing Events, Institutions, Industries, Counties, Cities, Vol. III (Chicago: Standard Publishing Company, 1912), 1388–89; “Obituary (Hannah Dixon Whitley),” Camden (ME) Herald, May 10, 1889; “Was a Hero to Emporia,” Kansas City Star, Oct. 29, 1919; “Col. H.C. Whitley Dead,” Emporia Gazette, Oct. 16, 1919; Whitley Family Genealogy, Vertical Files, Lyon County History Center, Emporia KS.