by Gill Hands
Maoism A type of communism invented by Mao Zedong in communist China.
Marxian Often used with reference to economics, this is a school of thought that believes that Marx’s way of analysing the economy is valid and independent of the need for revolution or class change.
materialist philosopher One who believes all ideas and beliefs are a result of life in the material world, and not the result of intervention by a divine or supernatural force.
means of production Raw materials, factories and land, which allow production to take place.
nationalized Brought under state ownership.
philanthropy Practical benevolence.
philosopher A person who uses reason and argument to seek truth and knowledge.
postmodern A flexible term with many applications, literally meaning ‘after the modern’. A way of looking at the world that takes into account the huge social changes that have happened due to technological advances, mass media and consumer society.
Praxis School A humanist school of Marxist thought founded in Yugoslavia.
primitive communism The type of classless society that existed in the distant past when people were hunter-gatherers.
productive forces A combination of the means of production, e.g. factories and machinery, with labour power.
proletariat The property-less working class in a capitalist system.
radical A person who wants fundamental change in a political system, usually through altering the basis of society.
Red Guard Communist militia, made up mostly of students, during the cultural revolution in China.
relativism The belief that knowledge and values are only relative rather than absolute. In other words, something can only be declared to be true in relation to something else.
revolution The overthrow of one ruling class by another, resulting in major changes to the structure of society.
revolutionary communism The belief that a communist state can only be created by a revolution.
slave society A society where much of the manual work is done by unpaid workers who do not have freedom.
social labour In feudal times this was labour done on behalf of society rather than for private enterprise.
social production A way of organizing work in society so that it is divided out fairly.
socialism In Marxist theory the stage between revolution and true communism.
sociology The study of society and social problems.
Soviets Regionally elected councils in communist Russia.
Stalin Russian peasant who became dictator.
structural Marxist A Marxist who follows a structural approach to Marxism as devised by Louis Althusser.
superstructure Cultural institutions which form a power structure within society.
surplus products Products over and above those which satisfy the basic needs of the producers.
syllogism A form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given premises.
synthesis From ancient Greek, meaning union or amalgamation. The final, third stage of Hegel’s dialectic, where the thesis and antithesis are combined.
terrorism The use of violence to make people accept radical social and political change.
theory of surplus value Marxist theory which explains how capitalists are able to profit from their workers’ labour power.
thesis From ancient Greek, meaning affirmation. The first stage of Hegel’s dialectic, where the original theory, or viewpoint, is proposed.
Tsar Russian emperor, or leader, of the semi-feudal society that existed before the Communist Revolution of 1917.
universal mind In Hegel’s philosophy this is a rational spirit with purposes and ends of its own that lives through human beings, although it is not the same as the human spirit. Also known as Universal Spirit (translated from the German word Geist).
use-value The intrinsic value that a commodity has for its ‘usefulness’.
Utopian Socialists Believers in a mythical perfect state.
vanguard of the proletariat Leaders of the communist movement who aim to educate the proletariat.
Western Marxism A wide grouping of theoretical Marxists in the Western world who do not agree with the interpretations given to Marx in the Soviet Union and China.
Young Hegelians A group of radical thinkers who debated the ideas of Hegel and Feuerbach. Marx was a prominent member in his student days.
Taking it further
Timeline 1750–1917
A summary of Marx’s life
1818
Karl Heinrich Marx was born on 5 May at Trier in the Rhine province of Prussia, now Germany. His father was Heinrich Marx, a successful lawyer and his mother, born Henrietta Pressburg, was from Holland. Both of his parents were Jewish but before Karl was born his father was baptized as a Christian, probably as a result of anti-Semitism.
1830–5
Marx studied at the school in Trier and was assisted in his studies by Baron von Westphalen. He became acquainted with the Baron’s beautiful and intelligent daughter, Jenny, who was four years older than himself.
1835
In October Marx began his studies at the University of Bonn, where he was supposed to follow courses on Greek and Roman Mythology and Art History but spent a lot of his time getting drunk and was involved in a duel.
1836
Heinrich Marx insisted that his son should move to Berlin University and devote himself to more serious study. He enrolled there in October for courses on Law and Philosophy. He became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen.
1836–9
Marx became a member of the Young Hegelians, a radical group influenced by the philosophy of Hegel but more materialist in their views. He was greatly influenced by Bruno Bauer, a lecturer in theology who was dismissed from his post in 1939 because he held atheist views. Marx neglected his studies again, this time because he became more actively involved in politics.
1841
Marx submitted his thesis to the University of Jena, on the advice of friends, who thought it was more likely to be accepted there than in Berlin. He was greatly influenced by the Essence of Christianity, which was published that year by Ludwig Feuerbach.
1842
In January he began writing for the Rheinische Zeitung, a radical paper, and by October he was made the editor. Under his leadership, the paper greatly increased its circulation but it was closed down by the authorities for its criticism of the government and its coverage of social issues.
1843
In June he married Jenny, after a seven-year engagement. Her father approved of Marx but the rest of her family totally opposed the marriage. In the winter the couple moved to Paris, where Marx became a communist and began to associate himself more with working men’s societies. He worked on the German-French Annals, a new paper set up by Arnold Ruge.
1844
The Annals closed down, but it was through their publication that Marx met Friedrich Engels, who became his lifelong friend. During this year he wrote the Economic and Social Manuscripts, although these were not published for another 100 years, and a Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right.
1845–7
Marx was expelled from France and in 1845 he and Jenny moved to Brussels in Belgium. He began to work more closely with Engels and together they wrote The Holy Family, a critique of Bruno Bauer and his followers, and The German Ideology. He also wrote his Theses on Feuerbach.
1847–8
He spent much of this year working on The Communist Manifesto with Engels. This was written on behalf of the Communist League, which had developed out of the League of the Just.
1848–9
Revolutions began in France, Italy and Austria. Marx moved back to Paris and then back to the Rhineland, where he started writing for the Neue Rheinische Zeitung in January 1849. He wrote several articles demanding that a constitutional monarchy should be set up in Prussia. These were seen as dangerous to the government and he was ba
nished as an alien in May 1849. In August he moved to London and rejoined the Communist League, but he became dissatisfied with the London communists. He felt they were urging people to attempt a revolution before they were ready.
1850–64
Marx and his family spent these years living in poverty in two rooms in Soho. Engels supported the family financially, but did not have much to contribute until he became a partner in his father’s company in 1864. Marx made most of his money writing articles for the New York Tribune, as its European correspondent. In 1859 his first book was published, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. He spent much of his time researching in the British Museum Library for his greatest work Das Kapital.
1864–7
The International Working Men’s Association was founded in 1864, and although Marx was not its leader, he was an important member and drew up the constitution. He attended meetings, several times a week, as a representative of the German council. In 1865 Value, Price and Profit was given as an address to a meeting in Brussels. He was also still spending a lot of time in his studies of economic and social history at the British Museum.
1867
Das Kapital, Volume 1, was eventually published after many years of work.
1868–70
These years were spent addressing meetings, working for the International Working Men’s Association and working on the further volumes of Das Kapital.
1871
The Paris Commune was proclaimed in April. This was an assembly of left-wing politicians, workers and radical intellectuals set up after revolution. The Communards’ rule degenerated into a reign of terror and was only defeated after a prolonged series of bloody battles. Marx gave his support to the commune, believing it showed the way forward for communism; this led to arguments in the International Working Men’s Association. Many members were moderate and wanted to gain workers’ rights through co-operation with the government. They turned against Marx for being too radical. Another faction, led by Mikhail Bakunin, an anarchist, opposed him for not being radical enough. Marx didn’t want to become embroiled in endless internal arguments; he felt these took him away from his studies. Eventually, the International moved to New York and disbanded in 1876.
1871–83
Marx became increasingly disillusioned by public life and became ill and depressed. He still continued to work on the next volumes of Das Kapital. His wife died in 1881 and his oldest daughter, Jenny, died in 1883. Marx himself died a few months later of lung disease. He was buried at Highgate cemetery in London. Engels inherited his papers and carried on with his work.
The writings of Karl Marx
Marx wrote numerous articles, essays and books in his life. These are the major works that contain his most important thoughts. Although many are not an easy read for the beginner, and not all of them are available from ordinary bookshops, anyone who wants to study Marx in more depth should read as many of his original works as possible.
On the Jewish Question (1844). An essay that is rather anti-Semitic but it sheds some light on Marx’s view of the rights of man.
Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right (1844). This was intended to be a full critique on Hegel’s Philosophy of Right but the introduction was the only part to be completed. It is an important work because it is here that Marx first discusses the importance of the emancipation of the proletariat.
Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (1844). Also known as the Paris Manuscripts. These were not published until after Marx’s death. The main theme of the manuscripts is the alienation that people suffer in a capitalist society.
The Holy Family or a Critique of Critical Critique (1844). This was written with Engels as a criticism of the ideas of the Young Hegelians. The title is a sarcastic reference to the Bauer family. It was first published in Germany and not translated into English until after the deaths of Marx and Engels.
Theses on Feuerbach (1845). These are short statements that Marx wrote to show how his materialist philosophy differed from that of Feuerbach. They were published by Engels in 1888. The eleventh thesis on Feuerbach is engraved on Marx’s gravestone.
The German Ideology (1845–6). This was not published until after his death and it was a collaboration with Engels. It is important because it states the theory of the materialist view of history and further discusses alienation in a capitalist world.
The Communist Manifesto (1848). Written with Engels, for the Communist League, this is one of Marx’s more important and well-known works. The first English translation was made in 1850. It was written as a direct appeal to the workers and so has the feel of propaganda. It describes the capitalist system and the creation of the classes of bourgeoisie and proletariat. It examines the idea of class conflict and calls the workers to revolution. It also gives some idea of how communism could be put into practice.
Wage-labour and Capital (1849). This was produced from lectures given by Marx at German working men’s clubs in Belgium in 1847. These were later published in Neue Rheinische Zeitung as a series that was never finished. Engels updated and revised the work before publishing his translation after Marx died. It explains Marx’s economic theories including the growth of capitalism, how wages and profits are determined, and how this affects the worker.
The Eighteenth Bruimare of Louis Bonaparte (1852). This was originally published in Die Revolution, a German language paper published in New York. The Eighteenth Bruimare refers to the date in the French revolutionary calendar on which Napoleon Bonaparte made himself dictator. In 1852 his nephew Louis Bonarparte proclaimed himself as Emperor Napoleon the Third. In this article Marx discusses French politics and history from 1848 until 1851, the date of the coup that brought Louis into power. The article is important because it explains his theories of the capitalist state.
The Grundrisse (1857–8). These were notes made in preparation for A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy and Das Kapital, and were not intended for publication. They were first published in Moscow in 1931–41 and were made available in translation in 1953. They are interesting to study because they show how Marx developed his ideas on economic philosophy and history.
A Critique of Political Economy (1859). A short piece on economics that is important mainly for the preface, which summarizes the theory of historical materialism.
Theories of Surplus Value (1861–3). These were contained in notebooks, and were not published until 1906–8. They are mainly notes for Das Kapital, dealing with the historical perspective of economic theory.
Value, Price and Profit (1865). An address given to the First International Working Men’s Association published after Marx’s death. It explains most of Marx’s economic theory in more simple terms than Das Kapital, including the theory of surplus value.
Das Kapital, Volume 1 (1867). This is Marx’s most important work, a long and detailed study of economics and its relation to history and society. It also gives evidence of the ways in which capitalists exploit workers.
Critique of the Gotha Programme (1875). This was a commentary made on the document that was written during the Gotha conference, when two German socialist parties became united. Marx felt that the Gotha programme did not adhere to the precepts of scientific socialism. He wrote the critique in reply, and circulated it among German socialist leaders, but it did not have much effect on the unification that took place. It was published after his death and is one of the few places where he discusses the ways in which a future communist society might be organized.
Das Kapital, Volume 2 (1885). This was published by Engels, and was based on notes that Marx left before he died. It gives more detail on economic theory but is rather dry. Unless you are an academic with a great interest in Marx’s economics, it is probably not worth reading.
Das Kapital, Volume 3 (1894). This is another work published by Engels from notes made by Marx. It is slightly more interesting than Volume 2, but again it is of more use to academic scholars of econom
ic history than to the beginner.
Marx on …
Some extracts from The Communist Manifesto.
COMMUNISM
A spectre is haunting Europe – the spectre of communism.
In this sense, the theory of the Communists may be summed up in the single sentence: abolition of private property.
Communism deprives no man of the power to appropriate the products of society; all that it does is to deprive him of the power to subjugate the labour of others by means of such appropriations.
In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, we shall have an association in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all.
CLASS
The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.
Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word oppressor and oppressed stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.
The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones.
Society as a whole is splitting into two great camps, into two great classes directly facing each other – bourgeoisie and proletariat.
The ruling ideas of each age have ever been the ideas of its ruling class.
BOURGEOISIE
The bourgeoisie, wherever it has got the upper hand, has put an end to all feudal, patriarchal, idyllic relation. It has pitilessly torn asunder the motley feudal ties that bound man to his ‘natural superiors’, and has left no other nexus between man and man than naked self-interest, than callous ‘cash payment’.