by Roshen Dalal
Roshen Dalal
The Vedas
An Introduction to Hinduism’s Sacred Texts
Contents
About the Author
Also by Roshen Dalal
Dedication
Introduction
Chapter 1: Vedic Literature: The Four Samhitas
Chapter 2: Related Literature
Chapter 3: The Origins: The Indo-Europeans
Chapter 4: The Iranian Connection
Chapter 5: The Indo-Iranian Homeland
Chapter 6: The Rig Veda
Chapter 7: The Tribes and Clans
Chapter 8: The Archaeological Setting
Chapter 9: Religion
Chapter 10: Ritual and Sacrifice
Chapter 11: The Beginnings of Medicine
Chapter 12: Two Spiritual Interpretations
Conclusion
Appendix I
Appendix II: A Selection of Hymns from the Four Vedas
Select Bibliography
Glossary
Acknowledgements
Follow Penguin
Copyright
PENGUIN BOOKS
The Vedas
Roshen Dalal was born in Mussoorie and studied in various schools across the country. After a BA (Hons) in History from the university of Bombay, she completed an MA and PhD in ancient Indian history from Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. She has taught at both school and university, and been involved in research in the fields of history, religion and philosophy, and education. Apart from books, she has written numerous articles and book reviews. After working for many years as an editor, she is now a full-time writer, living in Dehradun.
Also by Roshen Dalal
The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths
Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide
The Illustrated Timeline History of the World
The Puffin History of India, Vols 1 and 2
The Puffin History of the World, Vol. 1
For
Shahnaz Arni
Introduction
The Vedas are the most sacred books of Hinduism and, perhaps, the most controversial. There is no agreement on the nature and purpose of the texts, their date, or the origin of the people who composed them.
The controversies began almost as soon as the Vedas were translated and became known in the West. In the early 20th century, the great scholar Maurice Winternitz wrote, regarding the Rig Veda:
In view of the very great divergence in the opinions of the specialists, it is not enough, even in a book intended for the general reader, merely to give some approximate date, for even the general reader must have an idea of the circumstances supporting the various opinions on the greater or lesser antiquity of the Vedas.
(History of Indian Literature, vol. 1, A hymn to Soma)
The same principle holds true today both for controversies regarding the date and for other aspects of the texts. One of the most important points of dispute is the question of the homeland of the Vedic people. The other is the question of the region of composition of the Vedas. These two points are also related to the date of the texts.
There are four Vedas or Vedic Samhitas: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. There are also numerous related texts and commentaries. Based on both language and content, the Rig Veda is usually considered the earliest of the four Samhitas, which makes it the earliest known text in India.
This book begins with an overview of the contents of the four Vedas, and the different approaches used to understand them. This is followed by a summary of the related texts and commentaries. Among the important related texts are the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. Special texts that throw light on the Vedas include the padapathas (word texts) and anukramanis (indices). The Vedangas are a further group of early texts, which help in understanding the Vedas. These include texts on grammar and metre.
Where were the Vedas composed? And what was the origin of the Vedic people? Linguistics and archaeology are believed to provide the keys to answering these crucial questions. Since the late 18th century, it became clear that Sanskrit was related to several European languages including Greek and Latin. An assumption was then made that there must have been an earlier single language from which these languages later diverged. This hypothetical language has been termed Indo-European and its early form, Proto-Indo-European. If there was a single language, it is presumed that there was also a single homeland, from where all the groups speaking this language migrated and diverged, spreading across parts of Europe and Asia. Further, looking at the very close similarities between Rig Vedic Sanskrit and Old Avestan (earliest known language of Iran), it was presumed that one of the early divergent groups consisted of people speaking a language termed Indo-Iranian, which later diverged into the two languages referred to above. In addition, similarities were noticed in religion, myth and culture among the various Indo-European groups, and particularly between the two Indo-Iranian groups. Based on the linguistic theories, archaeologists began searching for an archaeological culture that would represent the early homeland, and various other such cultures that would represent the movements of the groups from the original homeland. In this book, the different Indo-European theories as well as theories regarding language change and diffusion are examined in detail, along with views that oppose or deny these theories. This is followed by a look at the Iranian material, which is essential for understanding the context of the Rig Veda. Despite the similarities in language, myth and ritual, the earliest Iranian texts, known today as the Gathas, provide an account of a very different monotheistic religion, later called Zoroastrianism. It is therefore important to understand the differences as well as the similarities in the Vedic and Avestan materials.
Against this background, what sort of information does the Rig Veda itself provide? What is the internal evidence of its date and origin? Can the Rig Veda and Later Vedic texts be equated with archaeological cultures and, if so, which ones? Is it possible, as many have claimed, that the Rig Veda belongs to the period of the Harappan civilization? An overview of the archaeological cultures in early India helps to situate the Vedas while an in-depth study of the texts provides some indications. The study includes a detailed analysis of peoples (tribes or clans), places and rivers mentioned, and their probable locations, as well as the likely identification of the numerous plants, trees and animals mentioned in the texts.
Apart from questions of location and origin, there is much of interest in the Vedas. There are beautiful prayers and hymns to deities, references to people, to wars and battles and to daily life, to nature, to crops and agriculture, and to wild and domestic animals. Among the deities are Indra, Vayu, Agni, Usha, Ratri, and many more. There are even some philosophical concepts. Early aspects of music are revealed in the Sama Veda and associated songbooks. Rituals are described in the Yajur Veda and associated texts, while the earliest account of medicine and healing occurs in the Atharva Veda.
The Vedas thus are rich texts, full of information of various kinds, written in a poetic and beautiful form. Yet there is a strange paradox: while the Vedas are considered eternal, supreme, and the most sacred of all texts of Hinduism, the contents are often mundane, or related to ritual.
This brings us to the question of translation. A single word in the Rig Veda can have multiple and divergent meanings. Can we be sure that the Rig Veda and other Vedas have been translated correctly? Among the earlier translators were H.H. Wilson, R.T.H. Griffith, A.B. Keith, Rudolf Roth, H. Grassman, Alfred Ludwig, and J. Stevenson. Newer translations include, among others, those of selected hymns of the Rig Veda by Wendy Doniger and of sections of the Atharva Veda by Arlo Griffiths. The newer translations have an easier and more modern style but, at the same time, are not wholly different.<
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It is instead the spiritual translators who provide a totally different meaning of the original hymns. Could they be correct and could all other interpretations be wrong? In Chapter 12 of this book, we look at the work of two spiritual leaders and scholars, who have interpreted the Rig Veda in a spiritual context. Another new translation that deserves mention is the complete Hindi translation by Pandit Shriram Sharma Acharya.
To summarize, this book presents an understanding of the texts both for the scholar and for the layperson. It ends with some unbiased and very tentative conclusions on their date and homeland based on a detailed analysis. The two appendices provide a list of hymns of the Rig Veda, and a selection of hymns from the four Vedas.
This book is based on my own original research, particularly on the Ganga–Yamuna Doab and surrounding areas, as well as on numerous other sources. Apart from the texts themselves, along with auxiliary texts and early commentaries, there are literally hundreds of books, and an even larger number of articles, on the Vedas, the so-called ‘Aryans’, the Indo-Europeans, the Indo-Iranians, and the relationship of the Vedic people with an archaeological culture.
A select bibliography provides a list of the main sources.
A NOTE ON SPELLINGS
Numerous Sanskrit words are used in this book. A standard system of spelling has been used, based on Monier-Williams’s A Sanskrit–English Dictionary, though without diacritical marks.
Chapter 1
Vedic Literature: The Four Samhitas
Vedic literature is very vast and is broadly divided into two parts: (1) the four Vedic Samhitas and (2) the related texts, including the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. Apart from these, there are three categories of texts known as Kalpa Sutras. There are also commentaries and anukramanis (indices) and associated literature—the Vedangas. All early texts and commentaries were composed in Sanskrit, though later interpretations use various languages.
THE SAMHITAS
The four Vedic Samhitas—Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda—are considered the most sacred texts of Hindus. The word veda comes from the Sanskrit root vid (‘to know’) and implies ‘divine knowledge’. These are said to be shruti or texts divinely revealed to the ancient rishis (sages).
DIFFERENT APPROACHES
These four Samhitas have been analysed and interpreted in different ways. Even early authors, such as Yaska (circa 7th–6th centuries BCE), recognized that the texts had many aspects. He described different interpretations of the Vedas by ritualists (yajnikas), etymologists (nairuktas), and traditional historians (aitihasikas). Other methods of interpretation traditionally referred to are parivrajaka (spiritual interpretation), dharmashastrika (pertaining to law) and naidana (etymological). The Vedas are also referred to in the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, and are particularly important in the Mimamsa school.
The yajnikas emphasize the use of mantras in ritual and are less concerned with their meaning or context. Most commentaries on the texts also focus on their ritual use. Though this interpretation has its limitations, it has led to the preservation of the texts in their exact form over centuries.
The nairukta method is what is used by Yaska himself, based on earlier texts, and consists of analyses of the words used in the Vedas. It is actually not a complete method in itself but one of the six Vedangas, or sciences, used in Vedic analysis. The aitihasika method relates a Vedic mantra or hymn with a mythical story or account of an event in an ancient text. In one example regarding a hymn in praise of rivers (Rig Veda 3.33), the ancient event related to it is said to be that the rishi Vishvamitra addressed the rivers with these mantras. The aitihasika method thus is totally different from historical analysis as it is known today. The parivrajaka interprets every aspect of the text in a spiritual context. The dharmashastrika searches for aspects of law in the Vedas, while the naidana is little known but seems similar to the aitihasika. It focuses on the context in which the verses were composed.
Among the many approaches of the past and present, three major ones can be identified and, depending on the approach used, very different interpretations emerge.
In one approach, the Vedas are seen as ritual texts, containing mantras and prayers to be chanted and used both in yajnas or sacrifices, and at other times. This corresponds with the yajnika school referred to by Yaska. As they are ritual texts, it is recognized that they also contain descriptions of sacrifices and miscellaneous information. The Samhitas themselves, particularly the Sama and Yajur Vedas, as well as the Brahmanas and the later Kalpa Sutras, indicate their ritualistic use.
In a second approach, the Vedas are seen primarily as historical texts, through which information can be obtained on the composers of the texts, their society, economy and religion. This is a modern historical approach, very different from the traditional aitihasika method.
A third approach denies both the ritualistic and the historical contexts, and sees the Vedas as deeply spiritual texts whose true meaning is not immediately apparent. This is more or less the same as the parivrajaka approach. It bases itself on a paradox that arises through seeing the texts as either ritual or historical books, which negates the traditional viewpoint of the Vedic Samhitas as the most sacred of all Hindu literature, which had formed the basis of religious study from the time they were composed. Neither ritual nor historical interpretations reveal or bring out this sacredness, which was emphasized in ancient texts. New spiritual interpretations have gained ground in the last 150 years, though they are based on ancient accounts.
The concept that the Vedas are eternal and supreme was always widely accepted and recognized. However, right from the time the Brahmanas were composed and even from the time of the Sama and Yajur Vedas, the ritual aspects were emphasized, and a large body of literature grew around this. The historical aspects gained importance from the time of European inroads into India, and the study of the Vedas by both Western and Indian historians.
MYSTIC ORIGIN OF THE SAMHITAS
As mentioned earlier, traditionally, the Vedic Samhitas are considered shruti, that is, divinely revealed. ‘Shruti’ literally means ‘that which is heard’, hence these texts were ‘heard’ by the composers, conveyed to them from some divine source. The Samhitas themselves have various accounts of their mystical origin. The Rig Veda states that the origin of the three Vedas (the fourth was added later) was the mystical sacrifice of Purusha, the primeval person (10.90). The Atharva Veda, which was the fourth Veda, has different versions. One passage states that from Skambha (the supporting principle), they cut off the rik verses, and scraped off the yajus. The saman (song) verses are its hairs and the verses of Atharva and Angiras the mouth (10.7.20). In another, it says that the god Indra was born from the Rig verses, and the Rig verses were born from him (13.4.38). A third passage (19.54.3) says that Kala or time was the origin of the Rig verses and of the yajus. A fourth passage says that the Rig and saman verses, the metres, the Purana with the yajus, and all the devas arose from the remains of the sacrifice. All these verses indicate a belief in their divine origin.
The Brahmanas and Upanishads also refer to the divine origin of the Vedas. The Shatapatha Brahmana states that the Veda is the foundation of all that is (6.1.1.8), while the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad sees the Veda as the breath of the Supreme Being (4.5.11). There are other similar statements in these texts and in later Puranas.
SHAKHAS
The Samhitas have different recensions and schools (shakhas). The Vedas were studied by groups of rishis who belonged to different shakhas, each headed by a particular teacher. Shaunaka, Ashvalayana, Pippalada and Kaushika are some of the known teachers. There were once hundreds of different shakhas but now texts belonging to only a few of these are known. These shakhas were distributed across different geographical areas. Each shakha specialized in the study of one Vedic Samhita and seems to have had a slightly different version of the text.
Apart from the Samhita itself, shakhas studied various associated texts, which could
include a Brahmana, an Aranyaka, an Upanishad, and texts in the category of Kalpa Sutras. This, however, was not essential.
Patanjali’s Mahabhashya of about the 4th century BCE refers to twenty-one shakhas of the Rig Veda, 101 of the Yajur Veda, nine of the Atharva Veda, and 1000 paths of the Sama Veda. The Mahabharata and some of the Puranas also enumerate and describe a number of shakhas. Over one thousand shakhas are listed in various texts but, of all these, probably only ten are current today. Sometimes, two shakhas used some of the same texts.
A group of people who study one particular shakha of any Samhita, along with its associated texts, comprise a charana.
At one time, the Vedas in their various shakhas were studied across much of India. As communities of brahmanas moved from one place to another, when invited by kings or patrons to attach themselves to a temple or settle in a particular area, the shakhas and charanas moved to different geographical areas. The Upanishads indicate that members of different castes could engage in such study. Later, however, their study was confined to members of the brahmana caste, and the Vedas were not accessible to the general population. It was only in the 19th century that attempts began to be made to make them known and available to others.
VYASA
Though composed by or revealed to rishis and others, the Vedas were compiled and arranged by some unknown person. According to tradition, it was the rishi Vyasa who arranged all the Vedic Samhitas in their present forms, according to the requirements of sacrifice. He then taught each of the Samhitas to one of his students, who in turn taught it to others. Some of the Puranas provide the following names of these students. They state that Vyasa taught the Rig Veda to Paila, the Yajur Veda to Vaishampayana, the Sama Veda to Jaimini and the Atharva Veda to Sumantu.