The Vedas
Page 2
Some later scholars presume that Shakala may have been the arranger of the Rig Veda, as the available recension carries his name.
COMPOSERS: RISHIS, KINGS, GODS
Over four hundred rishis are referred to as composers of the hymns in the Rig Veda. Twenty-one of these were rishikas (women). Wise and powerful rishis are also referred to in the hymns. Kings, gods and other people are also listed as composers.
A brief description of the four Vedic Samhitas is given below.
RIG VEDA
The Rig Veda has 1028 hymns, containing 10,552 riks (verses). A Rig Vedic hymn is known as a sukta. It comes from su-ukta, which can be translated as ‘well-said’ or ‘wise saying’ or ‘song of praise’. Each sukta contains one or more riks.
These 1028 hymns are divided into ten mandalas (sections). Another type of later division was into ashtakas or eighths. Each ashtaka was again subdivided into eight adhyayas (sections or lessons) and each adhyaya into vargas or groups of five or six hymns. For practical purposes, the mandalas are also divided into anuvakas (recitations).
DATE
The date of the text is uncertain and is perhaps the most controversial aspect of studies on the Rig Veda. As there is no clear internal evidence for the date, many different suggestions have been put forward, with estimates varying from 11,000 BCE to 1000 BCE. These estimates are based on relative dating of various texts, language, and information within the text. Some have even dated it to millions of years ago though a range of 1500–1000 BCE is the most accepted. However, an analysis of the various theories (see Chapter 6 of this book) will show that it is very difficult to reach any definite conclusion on its date. Of the four Samhitas, linguistic analysis indicates that the Rig Veda is the earliest and forms the basis for the others. Some scholars feel that though the other three Vedas may be later than the Rig in their present form, they could have had earlier origins.
RIG VEDIC SHAKHAS
Though, as seen above, the Mahabhashya refers to twenty-one shakhas of the Rig Veda; according to the Charana Vyuha attributed to the rishi Shaunaka, there were five Rig Vedic shakhas: Shakala, Bashkala, Ashvalayana, Shankhayana, and Mandukeya. The only complete recension of this text known today is of the Shakala school.
The Shakala text is still studied in parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh (UP), and may have also been studied in Punjab.
The Shankhayana and Bashkala shakhas are said to still be known in some parts of the country but this is uncertain. Some manuscripts of the Ashvalayana shakha are believed to have been found but the oral tradition no longer exists. Sometimes, Shakala texts are categorized as belonging to the Ashvalayana shakha. In Maharashtra, the Shakala shakha uses the related texts of the Shrauta Sutra and Grihya Sutra of the Ashvalayana.
Among the many lost shakha traditions of the Rig Veda are the Paingi, which existed in south India, and the Mandukeya, which was prevalent in Magadha, eastern and central UP and possibly farther north. The Shakala is, in fact, thought to be based on the Mandukeya.
THE PRIEST
Each Samhita had a priest specially trained in that text for use in the sacrificial ritual. The hotr was the main priest for the Rig Veda. His role is further explained in Chapter 10 of this book.
LANGUAGE
Panini’s grammar, composed some time between the 7th and 4th centuries BCE, provides the standard for classical Sanskrit. The early language of the Rig Veda has a greater variety of grammatical forms, somewhat different sandhi rules (methods of joining words), and some of its letters or syllables are marked with accents. It is also uncertain if the meanings of the words used were the same as in classical Sanskrit. This has led to the Rig Veda being translated in different ways.
Vedic Sanskrit is classified as an Indo-Aryan language, part of the larger group of Indo-European languages. However, it includes some features, for instance retroflex phenomes, which do not occur in other Indo-European languages, and it has been suggested that these belong to local languages, or to certain lost languages. Linguistic analysis forms an important part of the theories of origin of the Vedic people, and of other groups in India at the time of the composition of the Rig Veda. The various theories and their implications will be looked at in more detail in subsequent chapters of this book.
METRE
The Rig Vedic hymns are composed in several metres. The Sanskrit term for metre is chhanda or chhandas. More details on the metres are provided in the section on Vedangas in Chapter 2 of this book.
SUMMARY OF THE TEXT
A summary of the ten mandalas of the Rig Veda is given below:
Mandala 1 has 191 suktas. Each hymn invokes one or more deities. In some, the gods are invited to attend the sacrifices, in others they are asked to confer blessings or particular benefits.
The mandala opens with a hymn to Agni. Thirty-six more hymns are dedicated to Agni in this mandala and, in addition, Agni is referred to along with other deities in several others. The god Indra first appears in the fourth hymn, but has forty-five hymns dedicated to him, and is mentioned in many more. Other gods to whom separate hymns are dedicated are Vayu, the Ashvins, Ribhus, Varuna, Maruts, Brahmanaspati, Pushan, Usha, Surya, Savitr, Soma, Rati, Vishnu and Brihaspati. Some gods are always worshipped together, such as Dyaus-Prithivi; others are often, but not always, joined together. Among pairs of deities in this mandala are Indra-Varuna, Indra-Agni, Indra-Vayu, Agni-Soma, Mitra-Varuna and Indra-Vishnu. Some hymns are dedicated to the Vishvedevas, which usually indicates a number of different deities, but sometimes seems to refer to a separate group. Even where a hymn is dedicated to a single deity, others are often mentioned in the course of the hymn. These include Ka, Rudra, Ratri, Romasha as well as several goddesses. Soma is frequently referred to, and many of the gods are asked to come and drink the Soma juice. There are hymns to the Ritus (seasons), to food, and against poisonous creatures (1.191). This last is similar to the magical spells found in the Atharva Veda. One hymn (1.164) talks of the year and months in symbolic language.
The second part of Mandala 1, hymns 51–191, is considered to be earlier that the first half, and just slightly later than mandalas 2–7. These hymns are in groups, each group said to be authored by one rishi. These rishis are Savya Angirasa, Nodha Gautama, Parashara Shaktya, Gotama Rahugana, Kutsa Angirasa, Kakshivan Dirghatamas, Paruchchhepa Divodasa, Dirghatama Auchathya, and Agastya Maitravaruni. These groups are interspersed with some hymns composed by other rishis. The first part of Mandala 1 can be considered similar to Mandala 8. Over half its suktas are composed by the Kanva family, who are also composers of many of the hymns in Mandala 8.
Mandala 2 has forty-three suktas, almost all composed by the rishi Gritsamada. The opening hymns are to Agni; there are several to Indra. Among others are those to Rudra and the Maruts. There are also hymns to Brihaspati, Brahmanaspati, the Adityas, Varuna, the Vishvedevas, Dyaus-Prithivi, the Ashvins, Vayu, Savitr, Apam Napat, Rudra, the Maruts and to the seasons. There are two hymns to Shakunta, who represents augury.
Mandala 3 has sixty-two suktas, most composed by the rishi Vishvamitra and his family. The mandala opens with hymns to Agni, followed mainly by those to Indra and the Vishvedevas. Other deities include the goddess Usha, the Ribhus, Mitra, and the Ashvins. There are also hymns to the yupa (sacrificial post) and to rivers.
Mandala 4 has fifty-eight suktas, most of them composed by the rishi Vamadeva. The majority of the hymns are addressed to Agni and Indra. There are also hymns to Agni-Varuna, Rakshoha Agni, Vaishvanara Agni, Indra-Soma, Indra-Usha, Indra-Ashva, Indra-Brihaspati, Vayu, Usha, Savitr, the Ribhus, Dyaus-Prithivi, Surya, the Ashvins, the horse Dadhikra and Shyena, a falcon. One hymn has references to Kshetrapati, the lord of the fields, and to Sita (furrow).
Mandala 5 has eighty-seven suktas composed by various rishis, mainly Atri and his family. The suktas are to the gods Agni, the Vishvedevas, the Maruts, Indra, Dyaus-Prithivi, Mitra-Varuna, Savitr, Parjanya, Prithivi and others. There is one to induce
sleep.
Mandala 6 has seventy-five suktas, most of them composed by the rishi Bharadvaja and his family. Many are prayers to Indra and Agni. Among others are hymns to Pushan, Dyaus-Prithivi, and the goddess Sarasvati. There is also a sukta in praise of cows. One hymn (6.75) refers to deified weapons of war, including drums, armour, bow, quiver, and arrows. There are hymns to Indra-Agni, Usha, the Ashvins, Savitr, Indra-Soma and Soma-Rudra.
Mandala 7 has 104 suktas, composed mostly by the rishi Vasishtha. They are mainly hymns to Indra and Agni, though there are also some to other deities including the Vishvedevas, Savitr, Rudra, Mitra-Varuna, the Ashvins, Vayu, Apah, Usha. Among others is a sukta in praise of Vishnu. There are hymns to Vasishtha and his family. There is one hymn to frogs as bringers of rain. Frogs are also compared here to those who sing praises. There is a hymn to Dadhikra, and two to Vastoshpati, the guardian of the house.
Mandalas 2 through 7 have some similarities: each is composed mainly by one family, and each begins with a group of suktas dedicated to Agni, followed by some to Indra, and after that to other deities. Another aspect of these mandalas is what seems to be a careful arrangement of the suktas, with longer hymns in the beginning, and a gradually diminishing number of verses in each. The names of the rishis are sometimes mentioned in these mandalas, whereas names of others are known from later sources. There are also some typical types of refrains within each mandala, reflecting the consistency in the style of composition.
Mandala 8 has 103 hymns and is composed by two rishi families, the Kanvas and Angirasas, as well as by other rishis. It includes eleven valakhilya (supplementary) hymns, which are later compositions, inserted after 8.48. This mandala does not begin with Agni hymns. The suktas include those to Indra, Agni, the Ashvins, the Adityas, Aditi, Ribhu, the Maruts, Soma and Indra-Agni. Some hymns are like riddles; thus one hymn (8.29) describes various gods without giving their names.
Mandala 9 has 114 suktas composed by more than sixty rishis. All except one are in praise of Soma, both as a deity and as the divine drink. The first half of this mandala has hymns composed mainly in the gayatri metre. In hymns 1–60, the number of verses in each stanza decreases from ten to four, but this pattern is not followed in the second part.
Soma here often refers to Soma Pavamana, the Soma juice while it is being pressed and clarified. These hymns were therefore probably collected together primarily for ritual purposes. However, there are indications that a different Soma was also meant, that which represented immortality and the divine amrita.
Mandala 10 has 191 suktas composed by various rishis. This is the same number of suktas as Mandala 1, showing how the whole text was carefully arranged. It has the greatest variety, both in the rishis who composed it and in its content. This mandala can be divided into three sections according to the content and type of hymn. Hymns 1–60 consist of thirteen groups composed by rishi families. Hymns 61–84 contain twelve pairs of hymns; each pair often invokes the same god, and has a certain unity. Hymns 85–191 include philosophical and other unique subjects.
Among the suktas are a mystical hymn on creation and cosmological speculations. Around six hymns have speculations on the origin of the world by a creator, different from other deities, but called by various names (10.129). Others contain various topics, including a dialogue between Yama and Yami (10.10), between Pururava and Urvashi (10.95), and other mythological dilaogues between divine beings (10.51, 52, 86, 108). There is a sukta praising the havirdanas (gifts of oblation), and another which attempts to call the spirit of man back from the other world. One refers to all the rivers known at the time. There is also the Purusha-sukta on the sacrifice of Purusha, the account of Sarama and the Panis, and other diverse hymns. This mandala also has some specific hymns including wedding hymns (10.85) and funeral hymns (10.14–18), and other unique hymns.
There are hymns against disease (10.163); against a demon who injured children (10.162); against enemies (10.166); against rival wives (10.145); to gain children (10.183); to preserve life (10.58.60). There are some hymns with secular topics. In one (10.34), a gambler regrets the sorrow he has brought to himself and his family. Two hymns explain the benefits of wise speech and good deeds (10.71, 117).
Most scholars agree that this mandala is the latest addition to the Rig Veda. This does not necessarily mean that they were all late compositions. Some of them may have existed earlier, but were the latest additions to the Rig. In others, the language seems to have later forms.
APRI HYMNS
These are hymns, appearing in various mandalas, that are specifically used during the sacrificial ritual.
DANASTUTIS
These are hymns or parts of hymns that refer to dana (gifts) given to priests. These give the names of patrons and provide socio-economic information.
SOME OTHER ASPECTS
The Rig Veda is primarily a religious text, consisting mainly of prayers to deities. Many of these prayers were used in rituals and sacrifices. Apart from numerous deities, other divine, semi-divine and demonic beings are referred to. In addition, there are several hymns which provide other information. There are indications of the geographical boundaries, rivers, mountains, plants and wild animals of those days. Different types of people as well as wars and conflicts are described. There are references to kings and rishis, and to some aspects of the politics, society and economy of those times, in the region of its composition.
The purely spiritual interpretation of the text sees these references differently.
The opening hymn of the Rig Veda is given below:
Mandala 1.1 Agni
I praise Agni, the chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice,
The hotr, giver of wealth.
Worthy is Agni to be praised by living as by ancient seers.
He shall bring the Gods here.
Through Agni man obtains wealth, increasing day by day,
Most rich in heroes, glorious.
Agni, the perfect sacrifice which thou encompassest about
Verily goeth to the Gods.
May the god Agni, sapient-minded Priest, truthful, most gloriously great,
come here with the Gods.
Whatever blessing, Agni, you grant to your worshipper,
That, Angiras, is indeed your truth.
To you, dispeller of the night, O Agni, day by day with prayer
and with reverence, we come.
Ruler of sacrifices, guard of Law eternal, radiant One,
Increasing in thine own abode.
Be to us easy of approach, even as a father to his son:
Agni, be with us for our welfare.
(Based on the translation by R.T.H. Griffith)
The second hymn is dedicated to Vayu, and the third to the Ashvins. More examples of hymns are given in the Appendix.
THE OTHER SAMHITAS
YAJUR VEDA
The Yajur Veda consists of passages in verse and prose, arranged for the performance of yajnas (sacrifices). The term yajus can be distinguished from rik, a verse, and saman, a chant; yajus is that which is recited with the ritual. Many of the hymns in this text are taken from the Rig Veda, with some variations, but there are also some prose passages. It is the primary text for the whole sacrificial ritual. The Yajur Veda is mentioned frequently in the Brahmanas and Upanishads.
DATE
The Yajur Veda is considered later than the Rig Veda. However, the Matsya Purana and some other Puranas consider it the first Veda. While parts of it may be of ancient origin, its later date in comparison to the Rig Veda is indicated by the level of socio-economic development described in it. The caste system was further institutionalized by this time and there was a proliferation of occupations.
SHAKHAS
There are a number of different shakhas for this Veda, though they are nowhere near the original number of 101 referred to in the Mahabhashya. The two main versions of the Yajur are known as the Shukla (or ‘White’) Yajur Veda and the Krishna (or ‘Black’) Yajur Veda. The first is also known a
s the Vajasaneyi Samhita. Of this, texts of two shakhas are known, the Kanva and the Madhyandina, which are quite similar. Of the Black Yajur Veda, five shakhas are known: the Taittiriya (Apastamba), Kapishthala (Hiranyakesi), Katha, Kathaka, and Maitrayani (Kalapa), with four closely related recensions, known as the Kathaka Samhita, the Kapishthala–Katha Samhita, the Maitrayani Samhita and the Taittiriya Samhita.
The Vajasaneyi Madhyandina was originally prevalent in Mithila (north Bihar) while the Kanva was popular in Koshala (east UP).
PRIEST
The main priest for this text was the adhvaryu, and he was assisted by other priests.
TEXTS
The White and Black Yajurs differ somewhat and the outlines of both are given below.
VAJASANEYI OR SHUKLA SAMHITA (WHITE YAJUR VEDA)
This outline is based on a merging of the two recensions.
This text has prayers for the various sacrificial rituals. It has forty adhyayas, though some versions of the Kanva shakha have forty-one. In each adhyaya, there are subsections called khandakas or khandikas, each of which usually consists of a prayer or a mantra, which can be termed hymns for convenience. The prayers include riks or verses, and yajus or sacrificial formulas in prose. (Technically, both the verses and the prose passages can be termed yajus, as both are used in sacrifices.) There are frequent repetitions. A number of the riks or verses are from the Rig Veda, while some are from the Atharva Veda. Usually single verses of the Rig Veda are used, and grouped together in this text in a different way, for ritual use. The prose yajus are almost equal in number to the verse sections and are new compositions. There are approximately 1975 hymns in the Madhyandina and 2086 in the Kanva.