by Roshen Dalal
The prayers are grouped into anuvakas to be recited at sacrifices. Most of the first eighteen adhyayas of this text are part of the first nine sections of the Shatapatha Brahmana and are explained in detail there.
SUMMARY OF THE TEXT
Adhyayas 1 and 2 contain prayers for the Darshapurnamasa, that is, the new- and full-moon sacrifices, and the Pindapitrayajna, the offerings for pitris (ancestors), which is a part of them. Adhyaya 1 has thirty-one hymns and Adhyaya 2 has thirty-four.
Adhyaya 3 has the prayers for various fire sacrifices, for the laying of the fire, the morning and evening sacrifice (agnihotra), and the four-monthly sacrifices (chaturmasya). It has sixty-three hymns.
Adhyaya 4–8 have prayers for the Soma sacrifices including animal sacrifices. Some Soma sacrifices last for one day, others for several days. Several beautiful prayers are included here. The number of hymns is as follows: Adhyaya 4: thirty-seven; Adhyaya 5: forty-three; Adhyaya 6: thirty-seven; Adhyaya 7: forty-eight; Adhyaya 8: sixty-three.
Adhyayas 9–10 have prayers for the vajapeya and rajasuya sacrifices, both performed to increase the power of kings. They contain other topics, including comments on the use and efficacy of different metres.
Adhyayas 11–18 contain several prayers and sacrificial formulas for the agnichayana (the building of a special fire altar) and for other altars. These sections also include other topics. Among them, Adhyaya 12.1–4 refers to plants and the healing power of herbs. Adhyayas 13–14 describe various kinds of bricks used in constructing the altars, and include references to metres and songs. Adhyaya 15 deals with the fifth layer of the altar and refers to different stomas, ukthas and samans, all types of verses. Adhyaya 16 contains the Shatarudriya, the famous prayers to the god Rudra. Adhyaya 17 refers to bricks for building the altar, in millions and billions, and has prayers for taking possession of the altar. Adhyaya 18 ends with the symbolism of the altar. The number of hymns in these Adhyayas is as follows: Adhyaya 11: eighty-three, many with single verses; Adhyaya 12: 118; Adhyaya 13: fifty-eight; Adhyaya 14: thirty-one; Adhyaya 15: sixty-five; Adhyaya 16: sixty-six; Adhyaya 17: ninety-nine; Adhyaya 18: seventy-seven.
Adhyayas 19–21 have prayers for the Sautramani sacrifice. In this sura (a type of wine, not Soma) is used and is offered to the Ashvins, Sarasvati and Indra. Adhyaya 19 has ninety-five hymns, and Adhyaya 20 has ninety. Adhyaya 21, with sixty-one hymns, begins with a prayer to Varuna, and includes references to metres and songs.
Adhyayas 22–25 have prayers and instructions for the ashvamedha, the horse sacrifice. Only a powerful king or great conqueror could offer these prayers, which would enhance his glory. The number of hymns in these Adhyayas is as follows: Adhyaya 22: thirty-four; Adhyaya 23: sixty-five; Adhyaya 24: forty; Adhyaya 25: forty-seven.
Adhyayas 26–35 are somewhat later and are known in tradition as khilas (supplements or appendices). Of these, 26–29 have appendices to the prayers in the preceding sections. Adhyaya 26 has twenty-six hymns; Adhyaya 27 has forty-five; Adhyaya 28 has forty-six; Adhyaya 29 has sixty.
Adhyayas 30–31 include prayers for the purushamedha, the human sacrifice, and lists the people to be sacrificed. This sacrifice is generally believed to be symbolic. Each Adhyaya has twenty-two hymns.
Adhyayas 32–34 have prayers for the sarvamedha, the all-sacrifice or sacrifice of everything. The number of hymns in each are sixteen, ninety-seven and fifty-eight, respectively.
Adhyaya 35, with twenty-two hymns, has some funeral verses, mainly from the Rig Veda. Adhyayas 36–39 have prayers for the pravargya (hot milk ceremony; explained in Chapter 10 of this book). Adhyayas 36 and 37 have twenty-one hymns each; Adhyaya 38 has twenty-eight; Adhyaya 39 has thirteen; and Adhyaya 40, the last part of the Vajasaneyi Samhita, contains the Isha Upanishad and has seventeen hymns. This is an important Upanishad and has no connection with the rest of the text.
KRISHNA OR BLACK YAJUR VEDA
The Krishna Yajur Veda only has the prayers of the first half of the Vajasaneyi Samhita. The prayers are interspersed with explanations and commentaries.
Taittiriya Samhita (Black Yajur Veda)
A summary of the Taittiriya Samhita, one of the recensions of the Krishna Yajur Veda, is given below. The text is divided into seven kandas or sections, further subdivided into prapathakas. These are subdivided into anuvakas for recitation, which for convenience can be called hymns.
Kanda 1 contains eight prapathakas.
Prapathaka 1 has prayers for the new and full moon sacrifices; these are basically for protection and abundance. They also indicate the steps of the sacrifice and the verses to be uttered as the sacrifice proceeds. In the last verse, Indra, Agni and Pushan are invoked. It has fourteen hymns.
Prapathakas 2–4 have prayers for the Soma sacrifice, including prayers for the victim for Agni and Soma and for the Soma cups, along with prayers to Indra, Soma, and other deities including Mitra, Varuna, the Ashvins, the Maruts, Parjanya, Savitr, Surya; Indra of the Shodashin, Tvashtr, Dhatr, and for the dakshina offerings. Prapathakas 2 and 3 have fourteen hymns each, while Prapathaka 4 has forty-six.
Prapathaka 5 deals with the rekindling of the fire. It has eleven hymns and begins with a story. While the devas and the asuras were in conflict, they left their riches with Agni, who desired these and made off with them. Hence, the devas had to find Agni and re-establish the fire. It describes how this is to be done, and also has prayers for this. It has eleven hymns.
Prapathaka 6 begins with prayers for the new and full moon sacrifices, and also comments on them. It has twelve hymns.
Prapathaka 7 continues with explanations of the new and full moon sacrifices. From the seventh hymn, prayers begin for the vajapeya sacrifice. There are a total of thirteen hymns.
Prapathaka 8 is concerned with the rajasuya sacrifice for kings. It includes explanations and prayers, and has twenty-two hymns. The last hymn also prays to remove evil from both the dwelling place, and from oneself.
Kanda 2, with six prapathakas, includes (in Prapathaka 1) aspects of the special animal sacrifices. It describes the animals to be offered depending on the results desired. For instance, the one who desires prosperity should offer a white animal to the god Vayu, while he who desires offspring should offer a hornless goat to Prajapati. The devas or gods too are described as making offerings. When the sun did not shine, an offering of ten bulls by the devas restored its brilliance or, on another occasion, the offering of a white cow. While the first ten hymns are descriptive, the eleventh and last is a prayer.
Prapathakas 2–4 deal with special sacrifices.
Prapathaka 2 includes descriptions of offerings that should be made for offspring, disputes, and various other occasions. Offerings are generally of a sacrificial cake (purodasha) on potsherds (kapala) to various deities. It has twelve hymns, the last being a prayer, the others descriptive.
Prapathakas 3 and 4 continue with the special sacrifices, describing the offerings to be made, interspersed with some prayers to be recited. These have fourteen hymns each.
Prapathakas 5 and 6 deal with the new and full moon sacrifices.
Prapathaka 5 explains how and why Indra performed these sacrifices. It begins with a description of Vishvarupa, son of Tvashtr, who was the domestic priest of the gods, and the son of the sister of the asuras. Vishvarupa has three heads, one which drank Soma, one which drank sura, and one which ate food. Indra feared his strength and cut off his heads, thus creating enemies. Indra then made these offerings to the new and full moons. This ritual is described as the chariot leading to the devas, which is the direct way to come in contact with them. There is a description of how the sacrifice should proceed and what is to be said during the ritual. Prapathaka 5 has twelve hymns and ends with a prayer.
Prapathaka 6 continues with the description and has twelve hymns, of which the last two are prayers.
Kanda 3 has five prapathakas.
Prapathaka 1 contains further comments on the Soma sacrifice and on how to proceed with it. It states that S
oma is the king of metres and, apart from describing aspects of the sacrifice, it relates the metres to various deities. Soma is also the lord of plants. Among other things, this prapathaka describes the role of the adhvaryu, the special Yajur Veda priest, and how samans and stotras (basic unit of verses to be sung) are to be used, and when the ukthya or atiratra sacrifices (both Soma sacrifices, explained in Chapter 10 of this book) are to be performed. Some prayers are included. Prapathakas 2 and 3 are similar. The last few hymns of Prapathaka 3 focus on the special animal offerings. These three prapathakas have eleven hymns each.
Prapathaka 4 deals with the optional and occasional offerings. It begins by stating that if the sacrificial offering is too large, the sacrifice is rendered unsuccessful. It also describes conflicts between asuras and devas, and explains the power of the metres. It indicates when offerings should be made to minor deities such as Dhatr, Anumati, Raka, Sinivali and Kuhu. In one passage, it indicates that the gandharvas and apsaras are symbolic of different aspects of life—death is the gandharva, the apsaras are his offspring, or ‘love is the gandharva, his apsaras are his thoughts’. It includes a prayer to Vastoshpati, god of the dwelling place, and has eleven hymns.
Prapathaka 5 has miscellaneous supplementary comments on sacrifices. One interesting passage (3.5.4) asks protection from the very gods who were destroying and stealing the sacrifice.
Kanda 4 has seven prapathakas, mainly concerned with the preparation of the fire altar.
Prapathakas 1 and 2, each with eleven hymns, focus on the placing of the fire in the fire pan made of clay, and the preparation of the ground for the fire. There are prayers and beautiful descriptions of Agni. There are references to the metres and to the healing power of plants.
Prapathakas 3 and 4 deal with the layers of bricks of which the fire altar is to built, and have comments and prayers. Importance is given to the metres and samans. Prapathaka 3 has thirteen hymns; Prapathaka 4 has twelve hymns. One of these gives the early names of the months, different from those used later.
Prapathaka 5 has prayers and offerings to Rudra and includes the Shatarudriya, a prayer to the god Rudra that is still popular. It has eleven hymns.
Prapathaka 6 begins with prayers for the preparation and piling of the fire. Indra and Agni are often invoked. From the sixth hymn, prayers for the ashvamedha begin. This prapathaka has nine hymns.
Prapathaka 7 continues with prayers for the piling of the fire altar, as well as for the ashvamedha. There are fifteen hymns.
Kanda 5 has seven prapathakas related to the building of the fire altar and the ashvamedha. It comments on the offerings to be made and how the rituals should proceed. Prapathaka 1, with eleven hymns, includes the apri hymn for the ashvamedha (5.1.11). Prapathaka 2 has twelve hymns, with the last two for the ashvamedha.
Prapathaka 3 describes how the second and later layers of bricks should be laid and what words or mantras should be uttered while laying them. It refers to conflicts between devas and asuras. It says that ‘whatever the gods did, the asuras did’, and that when the gods and asuras were in conflict, the gods were fewer, the asuras more. It also comments on the ashvamedha or horse sacrifice. It has a total of twelve hymns.
Prapathaka 4 continues with descriptions and comments on the piling of the fire altar. It refers to plants and food, including ‘wild sesame and groats of gavidhuka grass’. It has twelve hymns.
Prapathaka 5 again continues with descriptions of the piling of the fire altar, the type of bricks to be used, and the animals to be offered to the altar and in the ashvamedha. It has twenty-four hymns. Hymns 11–24 are on the animals offered in the ashvamedha or horse sacrifice. Prapathaka 6 continues with the piling of the altar. Hymn 6 refers to Atharvan as Prajapati; it also says that Dadhyanch Atharvana is the fire, his bones are the bricks. Ashvamedha verses continue from Hymns 11–23, and there are a total of twenty-three hymns.
Prapathaka 7 continues with the piling of the altar, and points out the importance of the deity. It includes prayers to Agni. Hymns 11–26 continue with ashvamedha verses; there are twenty-six hymns in total.
Kanda 6, with six prapathakas, has an exposition of the Soma sacrifice and of the dakshina and other offerings.
Prapathaka 1 begins with the description of the making of a hall with beams pointing to the east, and the sacrificer purifying and consecrating himself for the ritual. There are again passages on metres. One verse states that metres are the descendants of Suparni (6.1.6). There is an interesting passage on musical instruments, which states ‘speech went away from the gods, not being willing to serve in the sacrifice. She entered the trees. It is the voice of the trees that is heard in the drum, the lute and the flute’ (6.1.4). There are also passages on Soma, and how it is bought in exchange for a cow or obtained from heaven. This prapathaka has eleven hymns.
Prapathaka 2 continues with the exposition of the Soma sacrifice, through descriptions and explanations of various aspects. One hymn recounts another conflict between devas and asuras. At this time, the devas themselves began to quarrel as they could not accept anyone as the chief deity. They then separated into five groups: Agni with the Vasus, Soma with the Rudras, Indra with the Maruts, Varuna with the Adityas, and Brihaspati with the Vishvedevas. The three citadels of the asuras—of iron, silver, and gold—are also mentioned. It is said that the devas made an arrow, of which Agni was the point, Soma the socket, Vishnu the shaft; it was shot by Rudra and the asuras were driven away. This prapathaka has eleven hymns.
Prapathaka 3 continues with the exposition of the Soma sacrifice. There are passages on the altars, the adhvaryu, and other priests, and on the sacrificial post; there is a reference to the Sadhyas, a group of gods who existed before any other living being. They offered Agni as a sacrifice to Agni for there was nothing else to offer. Another passage states that by means of Agni as hotr, the devas defeated the asuras. This prapathaka has eleven hymns.
Prapathaka 4 continues with explaining the Soma sacrifice. Once again, it states that ‘whatever the gods did as the sacrifice, that the asuras did’. There are passages on the Soma cups to be offered to the deities. One passage refers to Brihaspati as the purohita of the devas, and Chanda and Marka as those of the asuras. Both the devas and the asuras had holy power, Brahman. Sacrifice is said to be a means for overpowering the asuras. This prapathaka has eleven hymns.
Prapathaka 5 continues with explanations and comments on the Soma sacrifice. In a reverse of the usual story of Indra killing Vritra, it states that Vritra bestowed the ukthya on Indra. On the cups (grahas) to be offered, it explains that ‘the dhruva cup is the life of the sacrifice, it is drawn the last of the cups’. Aditi, the Adityas, and Vivasvant are mentioned. It also refers to the different types of cups to be offered and the results obtained. This prapathaka has eleven hymns.
Prapathaka 6 has explanations of the dakshina and other offerings, including the Shodashin sacrifice. In one passage, there is a suggestion that the sacrificial victim could be released and not killed. Thus 6.6.6 says that Indra caused Manu to sacrifice with his wife; after she had been encircled by fire, he let her go; therewith Manu prospered in that he lets go (the victim).
Kanda 7 has five prapathakas, concerning various sacrifices.
Prapathaka 1 deals with the Soma and other sacrifices, including the Pancharatra and the ashvamedha. It has twenty hymns.
Prapathaka 2 continues with the Soma sacrifices. From 7.2.11, the ashvamedha prayers continue. This too has twenty hymns.
Prapathaka 3 continues with the longer Soma sacrifices. The power of the sacrifice in overcoming the asuras is again mentioned. Thus one passage says that Indra was afraid of the asuras, but by the Agnistut he burned away the evil. The ashvamedha prayers are continued from the eleventh hymn. This prapathaka has twenty hymns.
Prapathaka 4 continues with explanations of longer Soma sacrifices. There are references to rites of twenty-four nights, thirty nights, thirty-two nights, as well as thirty-three, thirty-six, forty-nine nights and o
ne year. There is a passage on the atiratra sacrifice while the twelfth hymn continues with the ashvamedha prayers. This prapathaka has twenty-two hymns. A riddle too is provided here.
Prapathaka 5 explains various sacrifices, including the gavam ayana, a Soma sacrifice that lasts for one year. Some samans are named. A passage says that when the gods had come to an end, their power and strength departed. They won them again by the krosha saman. One hymn (5.10) refers to a specific fire, the marjaliya. From the eleventh hymn, prayers and explanations for the ashvamedha are continued. Hymn 5.25 explains the symbolism of the ashvamedha horse, similar to that in the Upanishads.
The first hymn of the Yajur Veda, common to both texts, is given below. This is basically a prayer for protection and abundance.
1.1.1
For food thee, for strength thee!
Ye are winds, ye are approachers.
Let the god Savitr impel you to the most excellent offering.
O invincible ones, swell with the share of the gods,
Full of strength, of milk, rich in offspring, free from sickness, from disease.
Let no thief, no evil worker, have control over you.
Let Rudra’s dart avoid you.
Abide you, numerous, with this lord of cattle.
Do thou protect the cattle of the sacrificer.
(Translated by A.B. Keith)
THE SAMA VEDA
The Sama Veda is usually the third in the list of Vedas but is considered second in importance to the Rig Veda. Its main purpose is to teach the musical method of chanting the verses (saman refers to ‘melodies’ or ‘music’), particularly for the sacrifice. The Sama is more closely connected with the Rig Veda than the other two Samhitas. Its importance is indicated in the Bhagavad Gita (10.22), where Krishna says, ‘Among the Vedas, I am the Sama.’ The Sama chants form an essential part of Vedic ritual. The Chhandogya Upanishad (1.1, 2) states it is the essence of the Rig Veda. The Brihad-devata says, ‘one who knows the samans knows the secret of the Veda’. The Rig Veda states, ‘The samans go to him who are awake.’