by Roshen Dalal
VYAKARANA (GRAMMAR)
Vyakarana or grammar is another important topic necessary to study and understand the Vedas. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads contain some aspects of grammar. The padapatha texts, and some of the pratishakhyas described above, also contain elements of grammar, as does Yaska’s Nirukta. Yaska, in fact, mentions that in his time there were already two schools of grammarians, the eastern and the northern.
The earliest available complete Sanskrit grammar was written by Panini and is known as the Ashtadhyayi. Not much is known of his life but Panini is thought to have lived some time between the 7th and 4th centuries BCE. He was possibly born in the village of Shalatura in the north-west region of Gandhara, but lived mainly in Pataliputra. According to legend, he was inspired by the god Shiva, and the sound of his damaru or drum, which reveals the true word.
Panini was not, however, the first to write a grammar; he is believed to have had sixty-four predecessors. Among them were Apishali and Kashakritsna, who are said to have founded schools of grammar. Others include Gargya, Kashyapa, Galava, Bharadvaja, Shakatayana, Shakalya, Chakravarmana, Senaka, and Sphotayana.
Panini’s Ashtadhyayi is said to be the most perfect grammar of any part of the ancient world. The text is divided into eight adhyayas, hence the name, which literally means ‘eight parts’. The grammar has 4000 short aphorisms, which have been commented on and explained by others. Among notable commentaries on Panini are those by Patanjali and Katyayana or Vararuchi.
The Unadi-sutras and Phit-sutras are other grammatical texts. The former is assigned by Patanjali to Shakatayana, Panini’s predecessor, but others assign it to Vararuchi who was later than Panini. The Phit-sutras are generally agreed to be later than Panini. Panini laid the foundation for all future grammatical works. His grammar was not exclusively on the Vedas, but included Vedic terms.
CHHANDAS (METRE)
Chhandas is a Sanskrit term with several meanings and is usually translated as ‘prosody’ but, in general, refers to metres occurring in sacred texts. The word chhandas is also used to refer to the hymns of the Atharva Veda or sometimes to other sacred hymns. In addition, it means intention, desire, or longing.
A knowledge of chhandas as metre is considered essential for the understanding of the Veda. Rig Vedic hymns are composed in several different metres. The line of a verse is known as a pada. A pada usually has eight, eleven or twelve syllables, and occasionally five, depending on the metre used. Generally short and long syllables alternate. The rhythm of the last four to five syllables follows a fixed pattern. A stanza or rik usually has three to four lines though there are variations, and some have five lines. Four is most common. There are seven main metres in the Rig Veda, as well as several more. These seven, in order of use, are trishtubh, gayatri, jagati, anushtubh, ushnih, pankti, and brihati. The three most commonly used metres in the Rig Veda are trishtubh also known as trishtup (4253 mantras), which has four lines with eleven syllables each; the gayatri (2467 mantras) of three lines and eight syllables per line; and the jagati (1350 mantras) with four lines and twelve syllables per line. Pankti and Mahapankti have five or six lines of eight syllables each. These seven metres are named in the other Samhitas as well. Among other metres is the Divpada-viraj, which has five syllables per line. The Viraj has thirty-three syllables. Usually a hymn is composed in a single metre but the last stanza is sometimes in a different metre. Some hymns are composed in several different metres. Hymns can have either single verses or groups of verses. A group often consists of three verses in the same metre, or two verses in different metres. Syllables in one stanza are between twenty and forty-eight, depending on the metre used. There are also stanzas or verses with mixed metres. The trishtubh and jagati, which have the same cadence, are sometimes found mixed together in one verse. Pragatha is a term used for mixed metres.
Aspects of metres are discussed in the Samhitas and some of the Brahmanas and Upanishads. References to the different metres occur even in the Rig Veda, which gives the names of deities who created various metres. Thus, gayatri was connected with Agni, and with transporting the Soma from heaven; ushnih was connected with Savitr; anushtubh with Soma; brihati with Brihaspati; and viraj with Maitravaruna. Indra is responsible for trishtubh and the Vishvedevas for jagati. The shakvari is another metre mentioned in the Rig, and it is said that the Vasishthas chanted praises to Indra in that metre. It has been suggested that Vedic metres were based on the natural modulations of the voice when speaking. This later developed into the music of the Sama Veda, which formed the basis for further developments in later times.
The Brahmana texts provide more details on types of metres, their usage, and their associations. They indicate that metres should be used according to the result desired. For instance, the Aitareya Brahmana (1.5) states that gayatri verses should be used as the invitatory and offering verses, for those who desire brilliance and splendour; ushnih verses are for those who desire life; anushtubh verses for those who desire heaven; brihati verses for prosperity and glory; pankti verses for the sacrifice; trishtubh verses for strength; jagati verses for cattle; and viraj verses for food. It is said that viraj means ‘the glorious’ and he who has the most food is the most glorious in the world. The text further explains how viraj contains the strength of all the other metres. The Shatapatha Brahmana states that metres were created by Prajapati.
The Chhandah-sutra of Pingala is among the texts dealing exclusively with Sanskrit metres. Though it is later than the Vedas, it has a section on Vedic metres.
Gayatri is revered as the goddess of metres. Thus texts indicate that the metres are believed to have a mystical origin. In some of the Dharma Shastras, sacrifices are offered to the metres, which are worshipped as deities.
The Nidana-sutra, a text on the Sama Veda, is an important text on metrics. It explains the musical aspects of uktha, stoma, and gana. It describes and names all the Vedic metres, mentioning those used in the ekaha, ahina and sattra sacrifices. It refers to several otherwise unknown Vedic texts.
A Rig Veda anukramani, Chandonukramani, lists all the metres of the Rig Vedic hymns. The Sarvanukramani summarizes the matter in other anukramanis. The anukramani of the White Yajur Veda, assigned to Katyayana, has a section on the metres of this text.
In post-Vedic times, though the gayatri was considered sacred, it was hardly used in texts. The anushtubh became the prominent metre, evolving into the classical shloka of the epics.
JYOTISHA (ASTRONOMY)
Elements of jyotisha and of a calendric system appear from the Rig Veda onwards. The times, dates, and duration of many of the sacrifices described in the Yajur Veda and later texts were based on a knowledge of the solar and lunar calendars.
The Yajur Veda texts as well as the Atharva Veda name the nakshatras (constellations), though the names differ. The Yajur Taittiriya Samhita says there are twenty-seven nakshatras, while the Atharva and Yajur Maitrayani Samhita give twenty-eight. Listed in succession, the nakshatras formed a sort of lunar zodiac. Based on a passage in the Brahmanas, the early scholars B.G. Tilak and Hermann Jacobi felt the Krittikas (Pleiades) were the starting point of the nakshatra system. The Vedic texts also seem to refer to an older calendar, when the vernal equinox was Mrigashiras (Orion). In the Chhandogya Upanishad, the study and knowledge of nakshatras is considered worthwhile. The Grihya Sutras have references to astronomical phenomena.
The Vedanga Jyotisha, compiled by Lagadha, is the earliest known text on the subject. The date of this text is controversial. A sentence in it says that ‘in the beginning of shravishtha, the sun and the moon turn towards the north’. By astrological calculation, this leads to a date of 1200 BCE, or to between 1300 and 1100 BCE. There are later elements in the work but the original could be of around this date. The entire text was probably composed before the 4th century BCE. It has thirty-six verses in its Rig Vedic recension and forty-three in the Yajur Vedic recension. Thirty verses in both versions are identical. The Vedanga Jyotisha was used to decid
e on the appropriate time for sacrifices, based on the position of the sun, moon, and nakshatras. It provides methods to calculate the tithis (lunar days), parvans (new- and full-moon days), and the vishuvats (equinox days). A five-year cycle termed a yuga was used for calculations, though the term yuga could be used in different ways. One solar year was taken as 366 days, hence five years came to 1830 days. Following the lunar calendar, this contained 124 parvans, which included sixty-two full moons and sixty-two new moons. To these parvans, one month added in the third year, and one in the fifth year, converted the lunar calendar into a solar calendar. The cycle began at the beginning of the six-month uttarayana period, on the first day of the bright fortnight of Magha, when the sun, moon, and nakshatra Dhanishtha came together. The Atharvana Jyotisha is post-Vedic. It has 162 verses on various topics, including muhurta (a division of time), karana (an astrological division of the day), yoga (this can refer to a time period, or to the main star in a lunar asterism), vara (a day of the week). It also looks at jataka (astrology) which forms a part of jyotisha. Later, the siddhanta system with twelve rashi divisions was introduced, and the Vedanga jyotisha was no longer used.
KALPA (RITUAL)
Apart from the Samhitas and Brahmanas, a special category of texts were concerned with ritual. These are broadly termed the Kalpa Sutras.
The Kalpa Sutras have three categories: the Shrauta Sutras, which provide instructions for the agnihotra and other sacrifices; the Grihya Sutras, which describe domestic sacrifices; and the Dharma Sutras, which explain laws and customs. Each of these are attached to one of the four Vedic Samhitas but are considered smriti (remembered) and not shruti (divinely revealed), that is, they have less sanctity than the Vedic Samhitas and other texts closely associated with them. Kalpa Sutras belong to different Vedic Samhitas and schools, and though each text is separate, some series of texts form a connected sequence. For instance, the Apastamba and Baudhayana schools of the Krishna Yajur Veda have closely related Shrauta Sutras, Grihya Sutras, and Dharma Sutras. For certain schools, only a single type of sutra is now available (Shrauta Sutra or Grihya Sutra) while some have only two.
Shrauta Sutras deal with the important Vedic sacrifices and further explain the sacrifices described in the Brahmanas. The method of laying the sacrificial fires, the agnihotra and the various Soma sacrifices, new- and full-moon sacrifices, are among those described. Shrauta Sutras are attached to each of the Vedic Samhitas. The Rig Veda has the Ashvalayana, Shankhayana, and Shaunaka Shrauta Sutras; for the Sama Veda, there are the Mashaka, Latyayana, and Drahyayana. The Taittiriya Samhita or Black Yajur Veda has the largest number, the Apastamba, Baudhayana, Satyasadha-hiranya-keshin, Manava, Bharadvaja, Vadhuna, Vaikhanasa, Laugakshi, Maitra, Katha, and Varaha; the Vajasaneyi Samhita or White Yajur Veda has the Katyayana; the Atharva Veda has the Kushika. Another Shrauta Sutra attached to the Atharva Veda is the Vaitana, which is anonymous.
Grihya Sutras describe household or domestic ceremonies, which are to be performed by Hindus at every stage in life, beginning from the time the child is in the womb. These ceremonies are known as samskaras. In addition, they describe the daily sacrifices a householder should perform, the morning and evening sacrifices, new- and full-moon sacrifices, and annual sacrifices. There are specific ceremonies related to agriculture and farming, house building, and protection from disease. Among the Grihya Sutras are the Ashvalayana, Apastambha, Baudhayana, Bharadvaja, Gobhila, Paraskara, Vaikhanasa, and Varaha. They were composed between about 400 BCE and 400 CE. Some of the Grihya Sutras have separate prayer books attached to them.
Dharma Sutras form the earliest sources of Hindu law and were originally composed between the 6th and 7th centuries BCE, with additions being made later. The customs and ethics described in these are written in short aphorisms and were later expanded and written in verse, forming the Dharma Shastras. Dharma Sutras are attributed to different authors, among them being the sages Apastambha, Baudhayana, Gautama, and Vasishtha. There are many Dharma Shastras probably composed from the 2nd century CE onwards, which expand on the Dharma Sutras. Some of these are idealistic, whereas others are used as legal texts and each is assigned to a mythical or real author. The Manava Dharma Shastra (of Manu), also known as the Manu Smriti, is the earliest, while those of Yajnavalkya, Vishnu, and Narada are probably of the 3rd to 5th centuries CE. There are several others.
Other types of kalpa texts are Shulva or Shulba Sutras, attached to the Shrauta Sutras. These contain information on the construction of fire altars, and include some basic principles of geometry. Shraddha Kalpas and Pitrimedha Sutras deal with ancestral rites; Parishishtas deal with additional material such as omens and practices to attain various powers. Later texts dealing with ritual include prayogas (handbooks), paddhatis (outlines), and karikas (descriptions in verse form).
UPAVEDA
Another category or branch of knowledge is known as Upaveda and includes several topics. Aspects of it are contained in the Vedic Samhitas and associated texts, but they were further developed as separate branches of knowledge. Four classes of Upavedas are Ayurveda, the science of medicine; Gandharvaveda, of music and dancing; Dhanurveda, of archery or military science; and Sthapatyaveda, of architecture.
OTHER TEXTS AND ASSOCIATIONS
There are also later texts and various commentaries, which throw light on the Vedas.
Several religious texts and schools of philosophy refer to the Vedas but there were also some specific commentaries. Some of the more important texts and commentaries are described below.
BRIHAD-DEVATA
The Brihad-devata is an important text assigned to Shaunaka, which provides an account of the Vedic deities. According to some scholars, the author of the Brihad-devata may not have been Shaunaka himself but a member of his school. The Brihad is composed primarily in the anushtubh metre but also has trishtubh stanzas. It has eight adhyayas. Each adhyaya has approximately thirty vargas, and each varga usually has five shlokas, though the numbers vary. The text begins by stating it is important to know every aspect of the Veda, including the deity addressed, the metre and nature of the verse. Only then can the mantras revealed to the rishis be understood. Adhyaya 1 and most of Adhyaya 2 provide a classification of the Vedic deities, with Agni, Indra or Vayu, and Surya representing the deities of the three worlds. The twenty-sixth varga of Adhyaya 2 begins a commentary, in successive order, on the deities of the Rig Vedic hymns. Some legends on the deities are also provided, many of them related to legends in the Mahabharata. The rishis, rishikas, steeds of the various deities, an account of the apri hymns, and a discussion on the Vishvedeva hymns are provided. The text is closely connected with the Rig Veda, the Naighantuka, the Nirukta, the Sarvanukramani, Arshanukramani, Anuvakanukramani, and Rigvidhana. It can be dated between the Nirukta and Saravanukramani. The Brihad also refers to several khilas or supplementary verses, some of which are not in the Shakala edition of the Rig Veda. The text quotes others including Yaska, Shakatayana, Shakapuni, Galava and the Aitareya Brahmana. It, in turn, is quoted in other texts. The Nitimanjari includes part of the text; Shadgurushishya and Sayana quote from it.
RIGVIDHANA
The Rigvidhana is also attributed to Shaunaka. It describes how the hymns or verses of the Rig Veda are to be used to obtain specific results.
COMMENTARIES
Over the centuries, there were numerous commentators on the Vedas, of whom a few are mentioned below. Skandasvami, who probably lived between the 6th and 7th centuries CE, composed a commentary on part of the Rig Veda. Udgitha and Venkata-Madhava were other commentators. The latter can be dated between the 10th and 12th centuries. Shadguru shishya, who lived in the 12th century, commented on Katyayana’s Sarvanukramani. The Chhandogya Brahmana has a commentary by Gunavishnu.
Sayana is one of the most important commentators on the Rig Veda and other Vedic texts. He lived in the 14th century CE and was a minister of several kings of the Vijayanagara empire in southern India. Sayana wrote commentaries on the Rig Ve
da, the Yajur Veda text of the Taittiriya Samhita, the Sama Veda, Atharva Veda, a number of Brahmanas, and the Aitareya Aranyaka. He also wrote the Yajnatantra-sudhanidhi on Vedic rituals and a number of other texts, including some on grammar. Sayana’s commentary on the Rig Veda is extensive and deals with each hymn, mentioning the rishi who is said to have composed it, the deity, the metre, and its use in sacrifice. Other texts and stories are used in explaining the verses. Sayana was probably assisted by other scholars, but was himself extremely learned. He is sometimes given the title sarvajna, ‘one who has all knowledge’.
His work influenced all later scholars, including many European commentators and translators. Mudgala, who lived after Sayana, summarized some of Sayana’s work. Mahidhara was a commentator of the 16th century. His commentary Vedadipa is on the Madhyandina recension of the Yajur Veda text of the Vajasaneyi Samhita. There were other commentators as well but these are the most important, up to the medieval period. Harisvamin and Dvivedaganga were among the others.
REFERENCES TO THE VEDAS IN OTHER SOURCES
References to the Vedas are found in many other sources, including the epics, Bhagavad Gita, Puranas, later regional literature, and in the six early systems of Hindu philosophy. A few aspects of these are provided here.