by Roshen Dalal
YASNA HAPTANGHAITI
Literally ‘worship of the seven sections’, this part of the Yasna in Gathic Avestan is possibly, according to some scholars, older than the Gathas, but was revised in Gathic times. It is in praise of Ahura Mazda but could have praised other deities earlier. It is mainly in prose, and may have been used in ritual offerings to fire and water. However, its tone and content point to a post-Gathic composition.
DATE
The date of the Gathas is linked with the date of Zarathushtra. There are also certain socio-economic pointers of a simple lifestyle, accompanied by the use of metal (probably copper), the rearing of cattle, and the mention of horses, chariots, and camels. It can also be linked with the Rig Vedic date and, on the basis of linguistic analysis, could be earlier.
The date of Zarathushtra remains controversial. Some Greek sources refer to 6000 BCE while an esoteric Zoroastrian sect dates him around 7000 BCE. Western scholars once assigned him to around 600 BCE, based on a late Sasanian account, stating that he lived 258 years before Alexander. There were also accounts of Zarathushtra at the court of King Vishtaspa, once taken to be the father of the Achamenian king Darius (521–486 BCE). However, the close linguistic similarity with the Rig Veda makes a date later than 1500–1000 BCE improbable. In addition, the genealogy of Vishtaspa mentioned in association with Zarathushtra differs from that of the later Achamenian king. Most scholars now accept that Zarathushtra lived some time between 2000 BCE and 1000 BCE.
In his study of the language, Karl Hoffmann, the German specialist in Indo-European and Indo-Iranian studies, concluded that Gathic Avestan was the natural language of the composers of the Gathas, the Yasna Haptanghaiti, and the four sacred prayers (Y. 27, 54). Later changes were introduced by the method of slow chanting of the verses for ritual purposes. Further changes took place due to the transmission by speakers of Younger Avestan, who composed the younger texts.
TEXTS IN YOUNGER AVESTAN
There are a number of texts in Younger Avestan, of varying dates.
THE YASNA
This text, as noted earlier, has seventy-two sections or haiti. Apart from those described above, which are in Gathic Avestan, the rest is in Younger Avestan. These were probably compiled over a period of several hundred years. Later, ‘yasna’ was the term for a ritual in which the text was recited. Apart from the Gathas, the Yasna contains various invocations and prayers. Yasna has the same meaning as Sanskrit yajna (ritual, sacrifice).
The Yasna begins with a prayer to Ahura Mazda, followed by invocations to the yazatas (minor deities) to attend the yasna (ritual). There are other prayers and blessings, including some ancient and sacred prayers. Sraosha is among the important deities mentioned.
The Yasna hymns mention sacrifices, the use of haoma, the invigorating and intoxicating drink considered the same as Soma in the Vedas, and offerings to fire and water. The daevas (same as Sanskrit devas), seen as opposers to the religion, are condemned.
YASHTS: HYMNS TO SPECIFIC DEITIES
The origin of some of these may be earlier but they were written in Younger Avestan. The twenty-one Yashts are tabulated here:
Table 4.1
Name Main deity
1. Ohrmazd Yasht Ahura Mazda (the supreme god)
2. Haft Ahmaraspand Yasht Amesha Spentas
3. Ardavahisht Yasht Asha Vahishta
4. Hordad Yasht Haurvatat
5. Aban Yasht Aredvi Sura Anahita
6. Khorshed Yasht Hvare kshaeta (the sun)
7. Mah Yasht Maongha (the moon)
8. Tishtar Yasht Tishtriya (the star)
9. Drvasp Yasht Drvaspa (guardian of horses)
10. Mihr Yasht Mithra (similar to Rig Vedic Mitra)
11. Sarosh Yasht Sraosha
12. Rashn Yasht Rashnu
13. Fravardin Yasht Fravashis (souls of the ancestors)
14. Varharan Yasht Verethraghna (Skt Vritrahan, a name of Indra)
15. Ram Yasht Rama Hvastra (the good Vayu)
16. Din Yasht Chista (wisdom)
17. Ard Yasht Ashi (blessing)
18. Ashtad Yasht Khvarenah (divine glory)
19. Zamyad Yasht Zam (earth), Kavyan Khvarenah
20. Hom Yasht Haoma
21. Vanant Yasht Vanant (a star)
VENDIDAD: A BOOK OF LAWS
The name comes from the Avestan vidaevadata, meaning ‘against the daevas’. It is also known as the Videvdad. It came to be recited in rituals along with the Yasna and this led to its survival, even as many other texts were lost. It is known from two sources; first, it is inserted into the yasna ritual along with the Visperad (see below), and second, it appears with a Pahlavi commentary or translation, which explains some aspects of it. The Vendidad also contains geographical information.
OTHER TEXTS IN YOUNGER AVESTAN
These texts provide information on the religion, but cannot be precisely dated.
Visperad
Another text used in rituals along with sections of the Yasna. The Visperad has twenty-four sections, and comes from the Avestan term vispe ratavo, ‘all the ratus’. The term ratu is variously translated but can mean a lord, authority, or leader. The text was used during Yasna ceremonies at gahambars (five seasonal festivals). It invokes and praises the ratus of animals and people, and also praises some Gathas and special prayers. Its date is uncertain. It was known by Sasanian times but could contain earlier material.
Nyayesh
Five prayers in praise of Khvarshed (sun), Mithra, Mah (moon), Aban (water) and Atash (fire). These incorporate parts of some yashts. The Atash Nyayesh can be compared with prayers in praise of Agni in the Rig Veda.
Gah Prayers
Five prayers to be recited at the five gahs or parts of the twenty-four-hour day. The gahs are Ushahina (midnight to dawn), Havan (sunrise to midday), Rapithvina (midday to mid-afternoon), Uzaiyeirina (mid-afternoon to sunset), and Aivisruthrima (sunset to midnight).
Khordeh Avesta
Also known as the shorter Avesta, this text is used for personal prayers and includes matter from the above texts. Sections of the Nyayesh and Gah prayers and some of the yashts are part of it. In addition, there are short and longer prayers and blessings. These prayers are to be recited daily.
Apart from these, fragments of over twenty texts containing ritual and other information are known.
THE NASKS
At the time of the Sasanians, all known Avestan texts were compiled into twenty-one nasks or books. Only parts of these survive. The Vendidad is among them.
DATE OF YOUNGER AVESTAN
The date of the Younger Avestan texts is not clear. Some of the texts, particularly the Yasna and the Yashts, are believed to contain very old material. But, these were revised and rewritten later to bring them in line with Zarathushtra’s ideas. All Younger Avestan texts are believed to contain later interpolations, dating up to at least one thousand years after the death of Zarathushtra. Minor changes probably continued to be made even after this. Some part of the Avesta may have been written in the late Parthian period but all available texts were compiled at the time of the Sasanians. The yashts in their present form have been attributed to the 5th century BCE, but this is only a guess; the scraps of evidence on which this was based have proved to be unreliable. According to Boyce, the Vendidad was compiled in the Parthian period. According to the Italian Iranologist Gherardo Gnoli, ‘The period the text belongs to is uncertain: While the contents and lack of any reference to western Iran suggest that it should date back to the pre-Achaemenian period, the form in which it survives would seem to place it in the Parthian period.’
OTHER TEXTS
Zand, meaning ‘interpretation’ or ‘commentary’ as explained earlier, was important to understand Avestan texts. There were zands in Avestan but they no longer survive as complete texts. Some parts of these are incorporated into the later Pahlavi (Middle Persian) and many existing Avestan texts have zands in Pahlavi. There are also Pahlavi texts such as the Bundahishn, which are based on l
ost Avestan zands and provide information, sometimes legendary, on Zarathushtra and his times.
There are also Zoroastrian texts of later times, composed in Pahlavi, Persian, Sanskrit and Gujarati, and Pazand, that throw light on the past. Apart from these, there are now several modern translations of old texts into English and other languages, as well as accounts of rituals and ceremonies.
INSCRIPTIONS AND OTHER RECORDS
Inscriptions also throw light on the development of the religion, particularly of three major dynasties: the Achaemenian (circa 550–330 BCE), the Parthian (circa 141 BCE–224 CE), and the Sasanian (circa 224–651 CE).
ZARATHUSHTRA AND HIS RELIGION
Zarathushtra was probably the first to preach a monogamous religion—with one God—and to introduce the concept of good and evil and to underscore the importance of living an ethical life.
Briefly, the religion put forward by the Gathas is that there is one God, whose name is Ahura Mazda. Ahura Mazda represents truth and cosmic order, and guides the world through his powers, known as the Amesha Spentas. Ahura Mazda created twin spirits, Spenta Mainyu and Angra Maniyu (the good and the bad, respectively), and gave each person the freedom to choose between them. It is each person’s responsibility to make the right choice in every situation and thus participate in the creation of a perfect world. In this struggle, the individual is helped by the Amesha Spentas, who are also personified as Asha (cosmic order), Vohu Mana (good mind), Armaiti (loving devotion), Khshathra (strength), Ameretat (immortality), and Haurvatat (perfection). The Gathas provide some other indications of religious practices, Zarathushtra’s life, names of people who supported him, and some socio-economic data. There is much less information in it than one finds in the Rig Veda.
In the Gathas, Ahura Mazda says that Zarathushtra is the only man who ‘listened to our decrees’. He is sent to the earth to guide the people on the right path (Y. 28). He refers to himself as a zaotar (Sanskrit hotr), a priest (Y. 33.6). He is a Master of Righteousness and an erishi (Sanskrit rishi) endowed with visionary insight (Y. 31.5, 10). He is also called a manthran (teacher of Manthras; Sanskrit, mantras), ratu (guide or leader) and saoshyant (saviour) and, in later texts, an athravan (priest; Sanskrit atharvan). Zarathushtra belonged to the Spitamid clan; his ancestor Spitama is mentioned several times in the Gathas. Haechataspa, who in later tradition was Zarathushtra’s great grandfather, is mentioned as well. The marriage of his daughter Pouruchista is also mentioned (53.3) but no other members of his family are alluded to. According to Pahlavi tradition, Haechataspa was the fourth and Spitama the ninth ancestor of Zarathushtra. Zarathushtra seems to teach his new doctrine to the Spitamas. He says: ‘Descendants of the Haechataspan Spitamas, to you I will proclaim . . .’ (46.15).
Zarathushtra also refers to ‘the heroic Maidhyomaongha Spitama’, who becomes his follower (51.19). Among his greatest followers was Kavi Vishtaspa. Zarathushtra calls him his ‘spiritual heir’ (53.2) and, in another passage, says that through the power of the sacrament and by following the path of the good mind, Kavi Vishtaspa attained enlightenment (51.16). According to later texts, Kavi Vishtaspa was the ruler of Bactria. Two other people are mentioned in the Gathas as his followers: Frashaoshtra Hvogva (51.17, 53.2) and Jamaspa Hvogva (51.18). Later texts state that they were brothers. They seem to have been ministers at the court of Vishtaspa.
In parts of the Yasna and Yashts, Zarathushtra’s father, Pourushaspa, and his three sons and three daughters are mentioned. His mother was Dughdova. Legendary accounts of his life, with some variations, are provided in later Pahlavi texts. At the age of fifteen years, he is said to have turned away from worldly life. A few years later, he went to Mt Ushidaran, where he lived in a cave, eating roots and berries, and drinking the milk of a goat who came there herself to feed him. There, around the age of thirty, he received enlightenment and conversed with Ahura Mazda in a vision. Thereafter, he returned to the world and began to convey his vision.
Zarathushtra is also said to have married Havovi and to have borne six children: three sons named Isatvastar, Urvatatnar, and Khurshid-chichar, and three daughters called Freni, Thriti, and Pouruchista. He travelled on horseback from place to place to spread his teachings and, according to tradition, even visited Tibet and China. He returned to Balkh, the capital of Bactria (Afghanistan), and settled there. At the age of seventy-seven, while he was praying in a temple, Tur-bara-tur, the leader of a hostile Turanian tribe, stabbed him. As Zarathushtra died, his attacker is said to have fallen dead too. Other legends regarding his death state that he died in his sleep, or that he ascended straight to heaven.
As for the Vedas, there are spiritual and esoteric interpretations of the Gathas. Among such interpretations, Tur-bara-tur is seen not as an individual but the embodiment of evil, which was shattered in Zarathushtra’s last moments on earth, while his six children are believed to represent the six powers of Ahura Mazda.
EARLIER RELIGION
Attempts have been made by various scholars to analyse the pre-Zarathushtra religion of the Avestan people, based on material in the Gathas, Yasna, Yashts, and later texts. Comparisons have also been made with Vedic sources but some assumptions, on which comparisons are based, do not seem valid. The Gathas themselves convey very little about the pre-existing religion. They indicate that ahura (skt asura) was a term used for a deity, as well as daeva (skt deva). In the new religion, both ahuras and daevas were subordinate, or inferior, to Ahura Mazda. There was some opposition between daevas and ahuras, but this was not total. Hence, one passage says that even the daevas pray to Ahura Mazda for bliss (Y. 32.1) while another (Y. 32.2), in contrast, states that the daevas are dishonoured for ever in the seven regions of the earth.
Among deities, the Amesha Spentas are mentioned, each by name; the deity Sraosha is also referred to. There is a reference in negative terms to Yima, the son of Vivanghvant, who permitted the bull sacrifice (Y. 32.8). Yima is refferred to as a king rather than a deity. Animal sacrifices, which existed in the past, were obviously not a part of the new religion. The karapans and kavis are referred to in negative terms. Both are said to have acquired illicit wealth. Karapans seem to have been assistants of the zaotar (high priest) while kavis were perhaps priestly rulers.
Though haoma is not directly mentioned, passages in the Gathas indicate that it was used by some groups and condemned by Zarathushtra. There are several references to the problems Zarathushtra faced, as people refused to accept his teachings.
There are some concepts that reflect ideas in the Upanishads. Thus one passage in the Gathas (Y. 45.8) says, ‘As an initiate, I see him clearly in my mind’s eye through Truth’. There is also a reference to tushnamaiti or ‘silent meditation’ (43.15) and to sava or ‘salvation’ (45.7).
The terms maga as well as magavan are mentioned in the Gathas. Zarathushtra is said to belong to the magavan. Maga has been translated in different ways, as a ‘difficult task’, a ‘gift’ or ‘reward’, or a ‘state of ecstasy’. But the term maghavan in the Vedas, referring to the god Indra, means ‘the bountiful’. From the context, maga probably refers to a special group of followers of Zarathushtra.
If we include Younger Avestan texts, more details can be found on deities and the nature of the religion. But while some of these may be references to pre-Zarathushtra practices, others are clearly later. In general, the Yasna (Sanskrit yajna) and the yashts refer to rituals and have prayers to deities. Many of the deities are different from those in the Rig Veda. We will look at some similarities later, but will first look at the possible location of the Avestan people, which has a bearing on the Vedic homeland, as noted earlier.
LOCATION
It is very difficult to identify the region where the Avestan texts, particularly the Gathas, were composed. Austrian linguist P. Tedesco and some others felt that the Avestan homeland was in north-western Iran but many scholars of the later 20th century believe that it was in eastern Iran. Others feel the text was composed in the South Russian steppes or in
Central Asia. As the Indo-Iranians are believed to have been one people, this homeland question is critical to an understanding of the location of the Vedic people. In this section, we look at the homeland of Zarathushtra and his people, not that of the Indo-Iranians.
In the Gathas, there are very few indications of their location and these too are not very clear. Two possible hostile tribes are mentioned: Grehma (Y. 31.12) and Bendva (Y. 49.1–2). However, not all translators agree; grehma has also been translated as ‘illicit wealth’ and bendva as ‘corrupter and defiler’. The identity of these two opposing tribes, if they were such, is not known.
In one passage (Y. 46.12), the Turahya (Turanian) Frayana is mentioned as a supporter of Zarathushtra, along with his descendants. Where the Turans or Turanians were in this time period is unknown. The Younger Avestan mentions Tura at least twenty times, and refers to Yoisht Frayana (Fravardin and Aban Yashts). In the former, he is among 261 converts to the good religion. In general, the Tura are located in Central Asia but one can note the similarity of some names in Vedic literature. Turvayana is a name of a chieftain in the Rig Veda, who was helped and protected by the god Indra. Tura Kavasheya is mentioned in the tenth book of the Shatapatha Brahmana as a teacher. He erected a fire altar at Karoti, a place or a river. In the Aitareya Brahmana, he is the purohita (chief priest) of King Janamejaya Parikshita. Turashravas is mentioned in the Panchavimsha Brahmana, where it is said that he pleased Indra by composing two samans. Indra, in return, gave him the oblation of the Paravatas on the Yamuna. While these texts are dated later, the name could also be related to Turvasha, a clan in the Rig Veda (see Chapter 7). There is very little other information in the Gathas except that there were clans of kavis in Zarathushtra’s homeland, most of whom opposed his teachings. The karapans and usikh, types of priests, were also against him. He recounts that he once had followers who ‘now reverse the doctrine and their spiritual inheritance and inflict pain and torture’. In another passage, he seems to refer to earlier times, when he asks how the daeva worshippers could ever have been good rulers.