The Vedas

by Roshen Dalal

  The jackal was known as lomasha. The simha or lion is mentioned many times. His thundering roar is referred to and he is said to live in the hills (girishtha) and to roam (kuchara). The boar (varaha) is known as well as the wild pig (sukara). Vrika (wolf) has several references—it was reddish in colour, an enemy of sheep, and considered dangerous. Kashila, a weasel or polecat, is also mentioned as well as mouse (mush or mushika).

  Reptiles and amphibians are also referred to, including snakes, and the godha, probably a monitor lizard, as well as the frog (manduka). The simshumara or shishumara was an aquatic creature, possibly a crocodile or an alligator or a dolphin. The vrischika (scorpion) too was mentioned and its poison was said to be feared. Suchika was a type of stinging insect.

  BIRDS

  Pakshin is a general term for a bird. Birds mentioned in the Rig Veda are fairly common ones. The peacock or mayura is referred to. The god Indra’s horses are said to have hair like peacock feathers (mayura-roman) and tails like peacocks (mayura-shepya).

  Among birds of prey, the gridhra or vulture is mentioned as well as the shyena (eagle) and the suparna (either another term for eagle or possibly a falcon). However, in one passage (1.64.20), there is a possible reference to two types of suparnas, which have been identified as the golden oriole, with beautiful wings, and the eagle. The shyena is a strong bird, which attacks smaller birds and even herds but it is this bird that brings the mystical Soma from heaven. Shakuna is a large bird mentioned frequently in the Rig; shakuni is similar to shakuna, but smaller than the shyena or suparna. The Indian judge, civil servant, and Sanskrit scholar K.N. Dave, in his book on birds in Sanskrit literature, identifies shakuni with the common pariah kite, and krishna shakuna or shakuni with the all-black Punjab or Tibetan raven.

  Among water birds is the chakravaka (Anas casarca), also known as the Brahmany duck; the hamsa, which is the gander or swan; and Ati, mentioned in the legend of Pururavas and Urvashi, which has been identified with the black ibis.

  Other birds include the chasha or blue jay. Kikidivi could be another name for it, based on its calls, but kikidivi has alternatively been identified with the partridge. The kapota or pigeon is referred to; the haridrava is some yellow or green bird, which Sayana, the 14th-century commentator, identifies as the gopitanaka or wagtail. Ropanaka is some kind of a thrush or parrot. The khargala is a nocturnal bird, perhaps some kind of owl, though uluka, the usual name for owl is also mentioned. Shushuluka is thought to be a small owl. Shakuntaka or shakuntika means a small bird. Vartika or quail is also mentioned. It was saved by the Ashvins from a wolf’s jaw. Vayasa, a large bird, could be the crow. Kapinjala is the grey partridge.

  Unidentified birds include the chichchika and vrishrava. The former may be a nightjar, named for the sound it makes. The Rig mentions about twenty birds, though this does not mean that the composers did not know more.

  In general, the fauna and flora of the Rig is thus compatible with what is available in the Indus Punjab–Sindh region.

  LATER VEDIC

  The Later Vedic texts include the other Vedic Samhitas (Sama, Yajur, Atharva) as well as the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. Though this book is primarily concerned with the Samhitas, some aspects of the others are used to identify culture and location.

  RIVERS

  Among rivers, the Sindhu (Indus) and its tributaries continue to be mentioned in the three Later Vedic Samhitas, though its western or Afghanistan tributaries are hardly mentioned. In the post—Samhita Vedic texts, even the name Sindhu is not common. It is referred to as if it is far away. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad mentions Saindhava horses, that is, horses that come from near the Indus. There are very few references to the rivers west of the Parushni. The focus is on two regions, between the Parushni and Yamuna, and the region east of the Yamuna.

  Between the Parushni (Ravi) and Yamuna

  The Vipash (Beas) is mentioned in the Gopatha Brahmana, which says that Vasishtha-shila is in the middle of it. Panini too mentions it; and in post-Vedic literature it is known as the Vipasha. Its course has changed since ancient times. Vasishtha-shila can be connected with a place named Vasisht on the river Beas near Manali in Himachal Pradesh. According to the Nirukta, the Vipash was earlier known as Urunjira. The Shutudri was later known as the Shatadru, flowing through a hundred channels, a reference to its frequent course changes. It was known as Zaradros in the works of the Greek writers Ptolemy and Arrian and in those days seems to have flowed into the Rann of Kutch.

  The most prominent river in this region is once again the Sarasvati. In the Brahmanas, Sarasvati is identified with Vach, the goddess of speech, indicating its continued importance. However, it is no longer known as a great river flowing to the sea. Instead it is said to disappear into the sands of the desert. The Drishadvati too is mentioned. According to the Panchavimsha Brahmana, special sacrifices were held on the banks of the Sarasvati and Drishadvati. But the Drishadvati too is said to disappear into the sands. As seen earlier, geologists believe the Sarasvati was once fed by Himalayan glaciers but began to dry up when a tectonic change made it a rain-fed river. The Panchavimsha Brahmana refers to the Parinah as another river in this region. It has been identified with the Parenos of Greek sources, a small tributary of the Indus.

  The Yamuna and the regions to the east

  The Yamuna is mentioned in the Atharva Veda and Later Vedic texts. In the Atharva, the salve (anjana) of the Yamuna is mentioned along with that of Trikakud. In the Aitareya and Shatapatha Brahmanas, the Bharatas won victories on the Yamuna. In the Mantrapatha, the Salvas live on its banks.

  Strangely, the Ganga is not mentioned at all in the other Vedic Samhitas but is referred to in the Brahmanas. In the Shatapatha Brahmana, Bharata Dauhshanti gained victories on both the Ganga and the Yamuna. In the Taittiriya Aranyaka, special honour is given to those who live between the Ganga and Yamuna—probably the text originated here.

  Some other rivers are mentioned that do not occur in the Rig Veda. There is a possible reference to the Reva, another name of the Narmada. In the Panchavimsha Brahmana, Revottaras is the name of a man and could refer to a person from the region of the Reva river. The Varanavati mentioned in the Atharva Veda (4.7.1) could be the name of a stream; Shipala (Shipalaa) in the same text is another possible river. The Sudaman is a river mentioned in the Panchavimsha Brahamana, and the Sadanira in the Shatapatha Brahamana. The latter meaning ‘always with water’, a perennial stream, is said to mark the boundary between the Koshalas and Videhas; it has been identified with the Karatoya, or with the Gandaki.

  MOUNTAINS

  In Later Vedic sources, the Himalayas continue to be referred to in several texts, including the Atharva Veda, and the Yajur texts of the Taittiriya Samhita and the Vajasaneyi Samhita. Though this is a generic term, it could include other mountains in the Himalayan range. Krauncha is a mountain referred to in the Taittiriya Aranyaka. It is thought to be in the region of Mt Kailash.

  Trikakud or Trikakubh, ‘having three peaks’, is mentioned in the Atharva Veda, Shatapatha Brahmana and later texts, as the name of a mountain in the Himalaya; it is probably the modern Trikuta.

  Nava-prabhramshana is one reading of a word in the Atharva Veda (19.39.8) but this is uncertain and may not be a proper name; literally ‘the sliding down of the ship’, it has been connected with Manor Avasarpana in the Shatapatha Brahmana, the northern mountain on which Manu’s ship settled after the flood; however, a pada text (see Chapter 2 for an explanation of pada texts) and some commentators, including Sayana, read it as na ava-prabhramshana, ‘no falling downward’, and there is a dispute on the correct meaning of this term. Manor Avasarpana of the Shatapatha is known as Naubandhana in the Mahabharata.

  Mahameru and Mainaga are two other mountains mentioned in the Taittiriya Aranyaka. Mahameru is a mythical mountain at the centre of the world. Mainaga could be the later Mainaka.

  TREES AND PLANTS

  Vana and vriksha are terms for trees. Plants in Vedic literature have two gen
eral terms, oshadhi and virudh, where oshadhi generally refers to plants with medicinal uses. The Yajur texts, the Taittiriya and Vajasaneyi Samhitas give the different parts of plants and trees and refers to roots (mula), panicle (tula), stem (kanda), twig (valsha), and flower (pushpa). In addition, trees have a corona (skandha), branches (shakha), and leaves (parna). The Atharva Veda divides plants into various types: those which expand (pra-strinatih), are bushy (stambinih), have only one sheath (eka-shungah), are creepers (pratanvatih), have many stalks (amshumatih), are jointed (kandinih), or have spreading branches (vishakha).

  Most trees mentioned in the Rig Veda continue to be mentioned in the later Samhitas. In addition, other trees are referred to. In the Yajur texts, these include karkandhu (Zizyphus mauritiana) or the ber, a small tree which grows up to 1400 m. Karshmarya (Gmelina arborea), known as gamari or gambhar, is common in deciduous forests. It is an ornamental tree but its fruit can be eaten and its wood can be used to make musical instruments. Badara (jujube) is a kind of berry or jujube like karkandhu and kuvala. Kharjura (Phoenix silvestris) is a wild date palm; it is indigenous to the Tigris–Euphrates area and in the Indus region, where silicified date seeds have been found of the 6th millennium BCE. This deciduous evergreen tree still grows wild in the Indus basin, southern Pakistan, and most of India and Bangladesh, usually found in sub-Himalayan tracts along rivers, on low ground elsewhere, and up to 1350 m in Himachal. Pitudaru has been identified as either devadaru or deodar, or khadira or udumbara according to others. Deodar, Cedrus deodara, is a tall evergreen tree, that grows between 1200 m and 3300 m, in the region extending from Afghanistan to Garhwal. Another tree known as devidar in the western Himalaya is the Himalayan cypress, Cupressus torulosa. Plaksha (Ficus infectoria), known as praksha, is a wavy-leafed fig tree with small white fruit.

  Putudru is probably the same as pitudaru. Rohitaka can be identified with the tree Andersonia rohitaka and is mentioned in the Maitrayani Samhita, as a tree, though in other texts it is the name of a place, probably modern Rohtak. Tilvaka (Symplocos racemosa), today known locally as lodhra, rodhra, and srimata, is used to treat dieases; it is a shrub or small tree that grows all over north-east India, up to 850 m. The Maitrayani Samhita refers to tailvaka—‘something made of its wood’. In the Shatapatha Brahmana, it is inauspicious to construct a grave near it. Vikankata (Flacourtia sapida) is locally known as katai. Krimuka is a type of wood used for fuel, while kramukha is probably a variant of it.

  The Atharva Veda mentions several of these trees as well as the following: shami, usually identified with Prosopis spicigera or Mimosa suma, but described in the Atharva as destructive to hair, broad-leaved and producing intoxication, which is not a characteristic of these; it may be what is locally known as chonkar.

  Another tree is bilva (Aegle marmelos), later sacred to the god Shiva. This grows in the sub-Himalayan foothills, up to 1200 m; its fruit is eaten by animals, the fruit pulp can be made into sherbet, the leaves used for fodder, and the wood for agricultural implements. Dashavriksha in the Atharva is said to be a tree, which is not identified; alternatively it may refer to ten trees. Arka in an obscure passage possibly refers to a tree and if so can be identified with Calotropis procera, whose leaves are used in sun worship; it has healing properties but the juice is also used in infanticide.

  Pilu (Salvadora oleoides) is still known by the same name. According to the Atharva, doves ate its fruit. Sraktya is used as an adjective describing an amulet (mani) and, according to commentators, it is derived from the sraktya or tilaka tree (Clerodendron phlomoides).

  Talasha has been identified with talisha (Flacourtia cataphracta). In the Atharva, tarshtaghi is a term meaning ‘derived from the tarshtagha tree’. Tarshtagha is mentioned in the Kaushika Sutra. It is not clear which tree is meant. Varana, still known by the same name (varna or barna), is mentioned as a tree in the Atharva and Brahmanas. It is Crataeva magna, or Crataeva religiosa nurvala, which grows in the Gangetic plains and peninsula, up to 600 m in shady areas near streams, and is a sacred tree planted near temples. The udumbara (Ficus glomerata) is another tree referred to in the Atharva and Brahamanas. Abayu has been identified with Brassica nigra. Alternatively, it may be the same as Abhaya, a tree also known as haritaki (Terminalia chebula), which has anti-ageing properties and grows all over the subcontinent.

  The Later Vedic Samhitas thus mention several more trees including those found in higher regions, such as pine and deodar. In addition, the Brahmanas refer to a few more. These include rajjudala (Cordia myxa or latifolia); sphurjaka (Diospyros embryopteris); and haridru (Pinus deodara). The term srekaparna in the Brahmanas has been interpreted to mean ‘like an oleander leaf’.

  PLANTS

  A number of plants are mentioned in the Later Samhitas, particularly in the Atharva Veda, which deals with the herbal treatment of diseases. Plants include those eaten as food and those used in diseases. Cultivated grains are in a different category. Food plants include cucumber, bottle gourd, lotus root and fibre, and citron fruit.

  Plants in the Later Vedic Samhitas

  Urvara (cucumber plant) and urvaruka, its fruit, are mentioned even in the Rig Veda. Priyangu, in the Yajur and Brahmanas, is identified as foxtail millet (Setaria italica, formerly Panicum italicum). The earliest cultivation of this millet was in China in 6000 BCE. Priyangu has alternatively been identified with Prunus mahaleb, a type of cherry tree native to Iran and Central Asia, or with Callicarpa macrophylla which grows in north-eastern India and Kashmir up to 1800 m, or Aglaia roxburghiana. The above three are used in Ayurveda.

  Bisa (lotus fibre) and shaluka (edible lotus root) seem to have been delicacies.

  Madavati is the name of a plant, meaning ‘intoxicating’, while madugha or madhugha is a sweet herb or plant. Madavati has been identified with Crataeva roxburghii and may be the same as varanavati, though the latter is also identified with a river.

  Alapu or alabu (Lagenaria vulgaris) in the Atharva and Maitrayani Samhita is the bottle gourd; vessels too were made from it.

  Jambila, mentioned in the Yajur texts and in the Atharva, is probably the same as jambira, the citron (Citrus medica), which has medicinal uses. The early Greeks recorded that it grew in Media and Persia. It is believed to also be indigenous to India.

  Water plants including the lotus and lily are mentioned. Kumuda (Nymphaea esculenta), mentioned in the Atharva Veda, is the white water lily, known by this name in later Sanskrit texts.

  Other plants with their probable identification are given below:

  Ashvavavra or ashvavala (Saccharum spontaneum), a species of reed, is mentioned in the Yajur texts and the Shatapatha Brahmana. It grows in the Himalayan foothills.

  Karira (Capparis or Capparis decidua), a leafless shrub or its fruit, is first mentioned in the Yajur Taittiriya Samhita amd Kathaka Samhita, and later in the Shatapatha Brahmana. Karira still grows along the banks of the river Yamuna.

  Putika is a plant often mentioned in the Kathaka Samhita, Shatapatha, and Panchavimsha brahmanas, as a substitute for the Soma plant. In the Taittiriya Samhita, it is used to make milk curdle, an alternative to parna-valka (Butea frondosa). It is most likely the same as putikaranja (Caesalpinia bonducella), still used today as a remedy for fever. Putirajju, mentioned in the Atharva Veda, may be the same as this. Adara is another substitute for Soma and, in the Shatapatha Brahmana, is said to be the same as putika; it is also mentioned in other texts.

  Among the large number of plants in the Atharva Veda, the following can be noted. Many are also mentioned in other Later Vedic texts.

  Saphaka seems to be an edible water plant or fruit.

  Alasala, silanjala (or salanjala), and nilagalasala may be some kind of grain or grass creepers. Silanjala is known as shilanjala in the Kaushika Sutra. It may be the same as shilapushpa (Didymocarpus pedicellata), a herb used to treat kidney stones.

  Andika is a plant similar to the lotus. An alternative reading is paundarika, similar to pundarika, the term for a lotus.

>   A number of plants have medicinal uses.

  Avaka (Blyxa octandra or Vallisneria spiralis) is an aquatic plant; the gandharvas are said to eat it. Later, it was known as shaivala and is identical to shipala. It still grows in watery areas. A related plant was shitika or four leaf clover (Marsilea quadrifolia). Both these plants, along with jalasha (unidentified), had cooling and soothing properties.

  Ajashringi, literally ‘goat’s horn’, is referred to as a demon destroyer; according to the commentator, it is the same as vishanin; it is also known as arantaki or arataki. Various identifications have been suggested, including Prosopis spicigera, Mimosa suma, and Odina pinnata. However, vishani is a plant that is still used medicinally, known in Sanskrit as meshashringi or ‘ram’s horn’, and is the same as Gymnema sylvestre. A woody climber, it is known as a remedy for snakebite and is also useful in diabetes. It has also been used for stomach and liver problems, and for water retention. It is found in the Deccan peninsula, extending to parts of northern and western India. The similarity in name indicates this is the most likely identification. Vishanaka, a plant used to cure the disease vatikara, is probably the same as this.

  Amula, literally ‘without root’, is described as a plant used to poison arrows. It has been identified with Methonica superba. Alternatively, it may be the same as anantamul (Hemedesmus indicus), a plant with antibacterial and anti-arthritic properties, found across most of India from the upper Gangetic plains to the east and south.