by Roshen Dalal
Both can be located in the north-west, probably beyond Gandhara. These references seem to indicate that the Vedic people, by the time of the Brahmanas, lived in regions far north and northwest. Whether they were here even in Rig Vedic times, or reached the areas later, is not clear.
The Uttara Kurus and Uttara Madras were other people of the north and north-west but may not have been as far away as the former group. They may have lived in Himalayan regions and were different from the Kurus and the Madras but could have been their offshoots. The Aitareya Brahmana states that Janantapi Atyarati wished to conquer the Uttara Kuru region, which was the land of the gods. This suggests it may have been the region of the present state of Uttarakhand, still referred to as the land of the gods, or perhaps Himachal Pradesh. Kashmir has also been suggested as the home of the Uttara Madras.
Pratichya, the western region, is mentioned in the Brahmanas. It seems to refer to the Punjab region. The Nichya, Apachya, Ambasthas, and Balhikas lived here. Ambasthya was a king of the Ambasthas; his priest for the rajasuya sacrifice was Narada.
The Sparshu, who must be the same as the earlier Parshu, were another western people according to the Baudhayana Shrauta Sutra.
WEST OF THE YAMUNA
The region adjacent to the Yamuna on the west and the east is the most important region of the Later Vedic period, occupied mainly by the Kurus. This was part of the region of Madhyadesha, the ‘middle country’.
The Sarasvati and Drishadvati still flowed in the region west of the Yamuna but they were not the great rivers of the Rig Vedic period. In the time of the Brahmanas, they disappeared into the sands of the desert. The time of the drying up of these rivers can be correlated to some extent from archaeology and geology. We will look at that and its implications for the date of the texts in Chapter 8.
Vinashana is mentioned in the Panchavimsha Brahmana and the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana as the place where the Sarasvati is lost in the sands of the desert. Its probable location is the inland delta formed by the Ghaggar–Hakra near Derawar fort in the Cholistan desert. Alternatively, it can be located near Sirhind in the Patiala region, where the river temporarily disappears. Another place mentioned in connection with the Sarasvati, in the same texts, is Plaksha Prasravana, a place said to be a forty-four-day journey away from the spot where the Sarasvati disappears. Through references in later texts, it seems to mean the source of the Sarasvati. Triplaksha is a place mentioned in the Panchavimsha Brahmana, which can be located near the Yamuna. Here the river Drishadvati disappeared.
Several places in this region are mentioned in the Brahmanas too. These include Asandivant, said to be the capital of the Kuru prince Parikshit; it can be identified with Asandh in Karnal. Kurukshetra is the land of the Kurus. The Panchavimsha Brahmana gives Parinah as its western boundary and Turghna as its northernmost part. Turghna can be identified with Sugh, in Ambala district. Other places mentioned in this region in the Brahmanas and Aranyakas are Sachiguna, which seems to be a place in the territory of the Bharatas; Karoti, a place or a river, where Tura Kavasheya made a fire altar; Maru, referred to as the utkara (mound of earth thrown up from the excavation of the altar) at Kurukshetra; Nadapit, the birthplace of Bharata; Rohitaka, a locality after which a saman or chant was named, and which must be the Rohtak region of Haryana.
Many groups of people can possibly be located in this area. The Kurus were in this region but their territory also extended eastwards across the Yamuna.
The southern branch of the Madras could be located near Kurukshetra or farther north-west. The Paravatas and Rushamas seem to have been located in or near the Kurukshetra region in this period. The Panchavimsha Brahmana refers to the Paravatas on the Yamuna.
The Aitareya Brahmana states that the Ushinaras and Vashas were in Madhyadesha, along with the Kuru-Panchalas. However, the Gopatha Brahmana regards them as northerners. The Mahabharata refers to Ushinara performing a yajna (sacrifice) on marshy land on both sides of the Yamuna. In the Puranas, Drishadvati is one of the five wives of Ushinara, indicating the location of Ushinara near this river. Alternatively, the Ushinaras may have been in the Shivalik foothills, north of the Kuru region. According to the Buddhist text the Divyavadana, Ushinara was the northern boundary of Madhyadesha. The Baudhayana Shrauta Sutra refers to Shibi, son of Ushinara, as a protégé of Indra, who sacrificed for him on the Varshishthaya plain and saved him from fear of a foreign invasion.
The Vashas were located near the Ushinaras and seem to have united with them. The Kaushitaki Upanishad connects them with the Matsyas. The Shalvas and Matsyas were probably in the present region of Rajasthan. However, M.R. Singh places the Vedic Shalvas, Matsyas, Ushinaras, and Vashas in the northern part of the Kurukshetra region. In the Atharva Veda, the Shalvas are said to live on the banks of the Yamuna. In the Shatapatha Brahmana, Dhvasan Dvaitavana is a Matsya king. In the Gopatha Brahmana, the Matsyas are connected with the Shalvas and, in the Kaushitaki Upanishad, with the Vashas.
According to the Mantra Patha, the king of the Shalvas was Yaugandhari, at a time when they stayed their chariots on the banks of the Yamuna.
THE GANGA–YAMUNA PLAINS
East of the Yamuna, in the region between the Ganga and the Yamuna, both places and people are mentioned.
The most prominent people in this region were the Kuru-Panchalas, referred to together in the Kathaka Samhita and in several Brahmanas and Upanishads. Together, they seem to have occupied the area from the west of the Yamuna across the upper Ganga plains, up to Allahabad. A passage in the Kanva recension of the Kathaka Samhita shows that they had one king. The Kurus were within the western doab and to the west of the Yamuna in the Kurukshetra region. Kauravya in the Atharva enjoyed prosperity under Parikshit, who ruled at Asandivat.
Ibhiyagrama was a village in Kuru country, belonging to the owner or rider of elephants; it was probably the same place known later as Hastinapura. Karapachava in the Panchavimsha Brahmana is the name of a place on the Yamuna while Mashnara, mentioned in the Aitareya Brahmana, is the scene of victory of a Kuru king.
Both the Kurus and Panchalas were probably groups into which several different clans were amalgamated. The Kurus included the Bharatas and Purus.
In the Brahmanas and Aranyakas, the Bharatas are said to have won victories on the Ganga and the Yamuna, and must have been located between these rivers. At this time, the Bharatas seem to have merged with the Kurus. In the Vajasaneyi Samhita, Bharata appears as a variant for Kuru-Panchala. According to the Shatapatha Brahmana, Bharata Daushanta bound seventy-eight steeds on the Yamuna and fifty-five near the Ganga. The Jahnus had merged with the Bharatas. The Vasishthas and the Vishvamitras, who were the same as the Kushikas, were the priestly families associated with the Bharatas. The Vrichivants, who are said to have contested for sovereignty with the Jahnus, were also probably associated with the Bharatas.
Kurushravana is known as Trasadasyava, descendant of Trasadasyu, who was a king of the Purus. The Kurus are most important in Brahmana literature and the major Brahmana texts were probably composed in their region.
Parivakra (or Parichakra) and Kampila were in Panchala territory. According to the Shatapatha Brahmana, at Parivakra, the Panchala overlord of the Krivis seized a horse for sacrifice. It could be identified with Ahichchhatra of later literature, the same as Ahichchhatra in Bareilly district, or the later Ekachakra, which was probably Chakarnagar Kheda in Etawah district. Kampila, mentioned in the Taittiriya Samhita, can be identified with Kampil in Farrukhabad district.
The Shatapatha Brahmana indicates that Krivi was either the old name of the Panchalas, or was one of their tribes. The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana (3.29.1, 7, 6; 8, 7; 4.7, 2) describes a close relationship between the Kurus and Panchalas. Ucchaishravas Kaupayeya was a Kuru king while Keshin Dalbhya, his sister’s son, was king of the Panchalas. The Shatapatha Brahmna (13.9.3, 1) mentions that a Kuru king was opposed to the restoration of Dushtaritu Paumsayana to his hereditary kingdom over the Panchalas, but failed to prevent it
from happening. One suggestion is that the Krivis, Turvashas, Keshins, Srinjayas, and Somakas were the five tribes that formed the Panchalas. This is also suggested by references in the Brahmanas. The Bharadvajas and Vaitahavyas were other families connected with the Srinjayas, and hence with the Panchalas, and the Shviknas and Vaitahavyas are suggested as other components of the Panchalas. The Shatapatha Brahmana mentions a king of the Shviknas, Rishabha Yajnatura.
Another passage in the Kathaka Samhita refers to a dispute between Vaka Dalbhya and Dhritarashtra Vaichitravirya, the former said to be a Panchala in origin, and the latter a Kuru.
In the Allahabad region, Kaushambeya, probably a native of the town of Kaushambi, is mentioned in the Shatapatha Brahmana. Kaushambi, identified with the present-day town of the same name, probably marked the eastern limits of Kuru–Panchala territory.
The Kapileyas and Babhravas, in the Aitareya Brahmana, were descendants of Devarata Vaishvamitra, who was the adopted son of Vishvamitra.
EASTERN GANGETIC PLAINS
Farther east were the Kashis, who can be identified with the later Kashis in the Varanasi region. Kashya was a king of Kashi. In the Shatapatha Brahmana, Dhritarashtra, another king of Kashi, was defeated by Shatanika Satrajita, a Bharata. Then the Kashis gave up kindling the sacred fire up to the time of that Brahmana. Ajatashatru and probably Bhadrasena Ajatashatrava were also kings of Kashi. The Koshalas, mentioned in the Brahmanas, can be located north of the Kashis. The Kashis and Videhas, who must have been in north Bihar, were connected.
The Magadhas, Angas, and Vangas were other groups in the eastern Gangetic plains. The Magadhas are not mentioned in the Rig but may have been the Kikatas of that text.
In the Yajur Veda, a man of Magadha is included in the list of victims of the purushamedha (human sacrifice). In the Atharva Veda, fever is wished away to the Magadhas and Angas, among other places. In the same text, Magadha is associated with the Vratya in a mystical way. Magadha is said to be his mitra (friend), his mantra, his laughter, and his thunder in the four quarters. (See Chapter 1, for more on the Vratyas.) In the Gopatha Brahmana, the term Anga–Magadha is used, indicating that they lived adjacent to each other. The Angas were later known to live in the region of the Son and Ganga, and were probably in this area earlier too.
Pundra is another region referred to in the Aitareya Brahmana, where the people are said to be oucasts. In the epics, Pundra was somewhere within Bengal and Bihar.
SOUTH OF THE YAMUNA
To the south of the Yamuna were the Kuntis, Satvants, and Kapeyas. The Satvants were defeated by the Bharatas, who frequently attacked them. The Kapeyas were the priests of Chitraratha, who was probably the king of Chedi. In the Rig Veda, Chitraratha is mentioned. The Kuntis were probably in the region of the Chambal river.
SOUTH OF THE VINDHYAS
Farther south were the Andhras and Pulindas. Vidarbha was a region in this area, probably the same as the Vidarbha region today.
OTHER PLACES AND PEOPLE
The Kiratas are mentioned as living in mountain caves. The Atharva Veda mentions a Kirata girl (kairatika) who digs up a herbal remedy on a mountain. The Kiratas were later a group in east Nepal but the term perhaps applied to a number of hill groups.
In the later Samhitas and Brahmanas, Nishada seems to be a general term for non-Aryan clans. The Karaskara, Muchipa/Mutiba/Muvipa, and Shabaras were among other people mentioned. Among places, Munimarana (‘saint’s death’) was said to be the place where the Vaikhanasas were slain. Shaphala was the name of Rituparna’s kingdom in the Baudhayana Shrauta Sutra.
THE KING AND HIS TERRITORY
Special sacrifices to increase the king’s power are described in the Yajur Veda, Brahmanas, and Shrauta Sutras. These include the ashvamedha, rajasuya, and vajapeya. The Atharva Veda has many hymns, which consist of blessings for kings. Some accounts in the Brahmanas bring out the importance of kings. The Aitareya Brahmana says that once the devas and asuras fought against each other, and the devas were defeated because they had no king. Hence they elected a king, who led them to victory. Kings, at times, identified themselves with gods. Through the rajasuya, the king was identified with the god Prajapati. As tribes amalgamated and were grouped together, more powerful kings emerged, ruling over larger areas. Some powerful kings were known as samrat. Kingship was usually hereditary, though election or selection took place at times. There are references to ten successive hereditary kings. However, Dushtaritu Paumsayana, tenth king of the Srinjayas in the line of descent, was expelled from his kingdom. The Tandya Brahmana refers (6.6.5) to a sacrifice, which would help the people to destroy a king. The king was considered the protector of the people. In this context he could confer rewards and punishments. References indicate that some amount of agricultural produce had to be given to the king—the beginnings of a system of taxation.
Wars still existed but some sort of states seem to have started to form, with tribes joining together and settling in distinct areas. Buddhist texts dated to 600–200 BCE refer to great states or mahajanapadas. In this Later Vedic period, smaller states or janapadas were formed. States were known as rajya, those ruled by kings, or as ganas or sanghas, ruled by a group.
SABHA AND SAMITI
The two assemblies, the sabha and the samiti, continued to exist and, in this period, seemed to have more power, though there are not many details of how they functioned. They assisted the king in administration and justice. Women evidently did not attend the sabha. A sabhapati, ‘lord or leader of the sabha’, is mentioned. As earlier, there must have been variations in the system of government across regions.
OFFICIALS
The purohita was the chief priest who advised the king on an array of matters. The senani or senapati probably commanded the king’s army. The suta was a charioteer or herald, the samgrahitri was the royal treasurer, while the akshavapa supervised dice playing, indicating the importance of this pastime. The gramani was the head of the village and supervised village affairs. There may have been different gramanis, one of whom was a representative at the king’s court. In the Shatapatha Brahmana, the gramani is considered inferior to the suta. The bhaga-dugha was another official but his role is not clear; one suggestion is that he collected taxes. Gramya-vadin in the Yajur Veda seems to mean the village judge. The kshattri, the king’s assistant or chamberlain, gonikartana/ govikatrana or huntsman, and the palagala or messenger were other officials. Most of these officials are mentioned in the context of the rajasuya sacrifice, and were known as ratnins (jewels), a term used later too for important officials. Eight people are listed as viras, supporters or defenders of the king. These are the queen, the king’s son, the king’s brother, the purohita, the suta, the gramani, the kshattri, and the samgrahitri. Various other officials helped the king in his tasks and duties.
CITIES AND VILLAGES
Both villages and cities (or towns) now existed. The Taittiriya Aranyaka mentions nagara in the sense of a town. The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana mentions mahagrama, or a large village. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad records the storing of grain in villages.
HOUSES
The house, known as harmya, is described in the Atharva Veda. It had several rooms or spaces, as well as an area for cattle and sheep. The method of construction is not clearly known but bamboo and thatch, or some other kind of wood, were probably used. Bricks or ishtaka were used in the construction of the fire altar, but are not mentioned in the context of a house. The dhana-dhani mentioned in the Taittiriya Aranyaka may have been a granary. The Atharva mentions patninam sadana or separate women’s quarters. A bed, couch, and seat with a cushion or cover are mentioned.
FAMILY
The kula (family) remained patriarchal. There were joint families where several generations lived together.
CASTE
The caste (varna) system began to increase in significance. Sacrifices became complex and the brahmanas’ role was essential. However, the caste system was not rigid, and passages in both the Brahmanas and Upanis
hads indicate that each caste had importance.
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (1.4) suggests that each caste had a valuable role, and that each emerged out of Brahman, the Absolute. It states:
At first the kshatriya and other castes were Brahman, who was alone. Being alone, he did not prosper. He created a noble form, the kshatriya, consisting of those who are kshatriyas among the gods: Indra, Varuna, Soma, Rudra, Parjanya, Yama, Mrityu, Ishana. Therefore there is none superior to the kshatriya. Hence in the Rajasuya sacrifice, the brahmana adores the kshatriya from a lower seat.
However, the verse goes on to say that it is the brahmana who is the source of the kshatriya. Thus, though the king attains pre-eminence, he is ultimately under the brahmana. The next verse says that he (Brahman) still did not prosper, therefore he created the vaishyas, that is those gods who are in groups, the Vasus, Rudras, Adityas, Vishvedevas, and Maruts. As he still did not prosper, he created the shudra varna, Pushan. ‘This earth indeed is Pushan for it nourishes all that exists.’ He then created a noble form (shreya rupam), which is righteousness (dharma). He also equates dharma with satya (truth). Thus the four varnas were created through the divine varnas.