by Roshen Dalal
AFGHANISTAN
As seen already, early Afghanistan had connections with Iran and Central Asia. In south-east Afghanistan, a route from Mundigak led to Balochistan. Mundigak is located in the Kushk-i-Nakhud valley, and was first settled from 4000–3500 BCE. Pottery dates back to this time, along with items of bone, stone, lapis lazuli, terracotta, and copper. There were houses and wells. Plant remains, including those of wheat and ber, along with bones of domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats were found in the succeeding occupation level. In the other direction, a route connected Mundigak to Shahr-i-Sukhteh in the Helmand valley of Iran, and through here to other parts of Iran and to Turkmenistan.
BALOCHISTAN–MEHRGARH
Balochistan in Pakistan has one of the earliest sites with settled agriculture, Mehrgarh, dating back to around 7000 BCE. The Kachi plain where Mehrgarh is located is on the eastern edge of the Iranian plateau. It is thought the Indus flowed here in the Pleistocene period. Even in the earliest period of occupation, circa 7000–5000 BCE, there were houses of mud bricks, tools of stone and bone, and evidence of the use of shell, lapis lazuli, and turquoise. Wheat and barley were grown; sheep, goats, and cattle were domesticated. Animal bones indicate that these were domesticated in this region, as they show a gradual reduction in the size of the animals, which happens with domestication from the wild. Graves have also been found, from the earliest period onwards. Human graves show the earliest evidence of drilling teeth. At least twenty more sites belong to this time frame, located in the North-West Frontier, Balochistan, Kachi, and Sindh. These were small sites, covering 2–3 hectares.
Mehrgarh in the next phase of occupation, termed the Burj Basket-Marked phase (dated 5000–4300 BCE) has handmade pottery, which is of a style and type also found across the Iranian plateau, at sites such as Tepe Yahya, and up to the Zagros mountains. There was continuity with the preceding period, and an increase in the number of sites in the Balochistan–Sindh region. Cotton was probably introduced at this time. Bodies in some graves were covered in red ochre. The next phase at Mehrgarh (4300–3800 BCE) sees the introduction of a different type of pottery termed Togau Ware. At least eighty-four sites with this ware were found in the region. Based on an analysis of skeletons found at Mehrgarh, those of this period, according to the American anthropologists B.E. Hemphill, J.R. Lukacs, and K.A.R. Kennedy, were similar to the type on the Iranian plateau, and to those of the Mature Harappan cemetery R37. Skeletons of the earlier period were different, suggesting similarities to the east of the subcontinent. At the same time, Mehrgarh showed continuity in the types of structures. Pottery was standardized, and copper and gold were used. Seals too were made, and there were domestic animals, wheat, and barley. From around 3800 BCE, settlements spread to other areas. At Mehrgarh, Balochistan, the north-west, and the Indus plains, there was a type of pottery termed Kechi Beg. At Mehrgarh, there was some continuity. Barley was the main crop and wheat was grown as well as grapes. Mehrgarh has connections with sites near Quetta and Kandahar including Mundigak, and with Shahr-i-Sukhteh. But these connections do not continue into the Mature Harappan period.
HAKRA WARES
Farther east, there were new settlements with a different type of pottery, named Hakra wares. Hakra wares include several types of pottery, some of which may have developed from styles at Mehrgarh and other western sites. Among them is a red pottery with a black slip. Hakra settlements were in Cholistan, in the region through which the dry bed of the Ghaggar–Hakra, the ancient river Sarasvati has been traced. The Hakra flows south-west and then south, ending in an inland delta. Most of the sites are in this delta. Hakra wares are also found on the Punjab plains, for instance at Jalilpur near the river Ravi, and extend into Haryana. Hakra sites have microlithic tools, stone mace heads, and finds of copper, carnelian, shell and other beads, bangles, and animal figurines. Some of them seem to be seasonal or temporary settlements.
Between 3200 and 2600 BCE, settlements had spread all over the north-western plains, extending into Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat. These are termed Early Harappan as they culminate in the great urban Harappan civilization. Possehl identified four approximately contemporary, interrelated, archaeological assemblages that constitute the Early Harappan. These are the Amri-Nal, Kot Diji, Damb Sadat, and Sothi-Siswal, mainly differentiated by pottery types. Amri-Nal is in Sindh, north Balochistan, and north Gujarat. Amri types predominate in Sindh, and Nal types in Balochistan. Nal, in the Khozdar area linking north and south Balochistan, probably dates back to 3500 BCE, and so do Kulli and related sites in the Kalwa tract. Sites in north Gujarat have ceramics suggesting a combination of Amri-Nal and Kot Diji. These include Dholavira, Surkotada, Moti Pipli, the Santhli sites, and Nagwada. Other sites in Gujarat such as Padri, Somnath, and Loteshwar have ceramics that are different from Early Harappan and could be earlier.
Over one hundred Kot Diji sites are known, in northern Sindh and adjacent regions, which succeeded the Hakra ware settlements. The Damb Sadat type, with more than thirty-five known sites, represents a culture mainly in the Quetta valley of central Balochistan. The Quetta valley is linked to the Indus valley via the Bolan and Khojal passes. The largest site is Quetta Miri (23 hectares), located at a site occupied from prehistoric to modern times. Mundigak in Afghanistan, 200 km north-west of Miri, is another large site, with Damb Sadat pottery. Miri Qalat was probably occupied from 4500 BCE and, before 3000 BCE, had close contacts with south-east Iran and Afghanistan. Miri Qalat also had a Mature Harappan site. There was influence from the Indus region and Central Asia too.
The Sothi-Siswal culture is located in the valleys of the Ghaggar–Chautang, the ancient Sarasvati, Drishadvati and tributaries, with the addition of one site, Nawabans in the Ganga–Yamuna doab. There are at least one hundred and sixty-five Sothi-Siswal sites, two of them larger than 20 hectares. The Kot Diji and Sothi-Siswal regions seem to be the most important.
The site of Harappa also has an early phase dating to 3500 BCE. There is not much evidence in the Early Harappan phase for significant social differentiation, craft specialization, or, according to Possehl, ‘the political and ideological institutions that produce public architecture’.
On the whole, Early Harappan sites were agricultural with domesticated animals, and some specialized crafts. Within a short period, the urban Harappan civilization, named after the type site of Harappa, emerged.
HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
The Harappan Civilization, known as the Mature Harappan in contrast with the Early Harappan, extends from 2500 BCE to 1900 BCE, and evolves from the settlements and cultures of the preceding period. There were, at the same time, many new settlements, while some of the earlier ones were abandoned or temporarily deserted. Kot Diji, Gumla, Amri, and Nausharo have evidence of burning between Early and Mature Harappan phases. Kalibangan has signs of an earthquake at this stage.
The civilization extended over 1.3 million sq. km, an area larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. It was dominated by large cities with baked-brick structures and an intensive drainage network, extending from Afghanistan in the north-west through Balochistan, Punjab, and Sindh, and farther east through Haryana up to the Yamuna. It also extended into Rajasthan and Gujarat. Over one thousand sites have been found of this culture.
Harappa and Mohenjodaro (both in Pakistan today) were the earliest and largest cities discovered, with an estimated size of 100 hectares. Other large cities and their probable size were as follows: Rakhigarhi in Haryana, 80 hectares; Ganweriwala in West Punjab (Pakistan), Dholavira in Gujarat, 60 hectares each; Nagoor, Tharo Waro Daro, Lakhueenjo daro, all in Sindh, 50 hectares each; and Nandowari in Balochistan, 50 hectares. There are also some large sites in Bathinda district of Punjab (India), Lakhmirwala, Gurnikalan 1 and Hasanpur 2. Some of these cities had a population of 30,000–40,000 and were possibly the largest of those times. Other cities included Chanhudaro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali, Sutkagendor, and Surkotada. Kot Diji, Amri and others may have been smaller cities. Some of these, suc
h as Kalibangan, Amri, and Kot Diji, were occupied even in the Early Harappan period and prior to this.
GENERAL FEATURES
Harappan cities and towns had some common features. Several had a separate area where large buildings were built on raised brick platforms, with the whole area sometimes surrounded by a massive brick wall. At Mohenjodaro, these large buildings included the Great Bath, which was a swimming-pool-like complex; another structure that may have been a granary or storage room; and a pillared structure like an assembly hall. There was a large granary or storage building at Harappa as well.
The main town area was well planned. Several cities had houses made of baked brick or used some amount of baked brick in their structures. Some houses were two-storeyed, with several rooms, a courtyard, bathrooms, and wells to draw water from. Houses had their own drains connected to street drains that ran underground. Drains were made of brick and mortar. Street drains had manholes, so that they could be cleaned. It was the best drainage system of the ancient world.
Between the cities, crops were grown, with some variation by region. Crops included wheat, barley, millets, mustard, sesame, peas, and cotton. Millets included African millets, which must have been brought here at an early date. Rice was grown in western India, and rice grains were found at Harappa. Watermelon, dates, and grapes were also grown. Garlic was found at Balu in Haryana. The plough, probably made of wood, was used. At Kalibangan, there is evidence of a ploughed field of Early Harappan times.
Animals can be identified by bone remains or designs on seals or pottery. Domestic animals included cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, donkeys, camels, and possibly the cat. The elephant was probably tamed. There is some controversy about whether the horse was known and domesticated. While excavators have identified horse bones at some sites, others feel the identifications are incorrect and the bones belong to the wild ass or onager. Horses are crucial to the Rig Veda, hence those who believe the Rig Veda belongs to the Harappan or pre-Harappan period accept the identifications of horse bones while those who would like to date the Rig Veda to a later period contradict these findings. Upinder Singh, a noted historian who specializes in ancient India, summarizes:
Horse remains have been reported at Harappa, Lothal, Surkotada, Kuntasi, and Kalibangan, and at superficial levels at Mohenjodaro. Sandor Bokonyi (1997) examined the equid bone samples from Surkotada and concluded that at least six of them probably belonged to the true horse. His conclusions were challenged by Meadow and Patel (1997). Brigadier Ross (1946) reported horse teeth at pre-Harappan levels at Rana Ghundai, but this identification was questioned by Zeuner (1963). While horse bones may not be completely absent at Harappan sites, they are not prolific either.
It should be added that Brigadier E.J. Ross of the British–Indian army was a veterenarian, hence his identifications are unlikely to be wrong. Horse bones have also been found at Shikarpur, a Harappan site in Gujarat, and at Mesolithic sites in other parts of the country (see below).
Wild animals known included several types of deer, such as black buck, nilgai, and gazelles; among other animals were elephants, tigers, leopards, monkeys, wild buffalos, rhinoceros, wild pigs and boars, wild sheep and goats, jackals, rabbits, and hare. Among birds, there were peacocks, wild fowl, ducks, and pigeons. There were also tortoises, crocodiles, snakes, and fish, both those with and without shells.
ARTEFACTS
Stone was used in buildings, and to make knives and sickles. Copper was crafted into numerous objects and also alloyed to make bronze. Copper and bronze items included cooking pots, vessels, tools, and weapons, including axes, saws, knives, arrowheads, and spears. There were copper mirrors, rings, and bangles. Jewellery was also made of gold, silver, semiprecious stones, and shell, and included necklaces, bangles, beads, and amulets. Carnelian, turquoise, and lapis lazuli were among the semiprecious stones used. Long carnelian beads were especially prized, even in Mesopotamia. There was wheel-made pottery, shiny red with black painting, as well as plain and other pottery. Baked bricks were made in standard sizes. Stone and terracotta images were made, as well as terracotta toys. Most notable is the sculpture of a bearded man, wearing a shawl. Wool and cotton were woven, and some woven material was also patterned.
The intricately carved stone seal was a hallmark of the civilization. Seals were small tablets, usually made of steatite stone, which left an impression when pressed into a soft substance like clay. Various images were carved into them, and they had short inscriptions in an undeciphered script. Boats and carts with wheels were constructed for long-distance trade by land and sea. Weights and measures were used. Weights were usually in multiples of sixteen.
ECONOMY
The economy was not entirely urban or city based. There were village settlements and pastoralists.
TRADE
Earlier land trade crossed through Mehrgarh in Balochistan and Mundigak in Afghanistan. During the Mature Harappan period, Shortughai in Afghanistan was a trade outpost on a route to the north-west. Harappan items have been found in Iran, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, and Mesopotamia. In Mesopotamian records, India is probably called Meluhha. From Meluhha came boats loaded with timber, copper, gold, carnelian, and ivory objects. Imports included turquoise and lapis lazuli.
RELIGION
As its script has not been satisfactorily deciphered, most of the evidence for its religion comes from its numerous stone or steatite seals. In addition, there are flat copper tablets as well as figures depicted in bronze and stone, and a number of terracotta figurines of humans and animals. There are also certain unique architectural structures. On the basis of these, scholars have formed tentative and varying conclusions about the nature of the religion of the civilization. Some of the key features are given below:
Horned deity: Some seals and copper tablets of the Indus Valley Civilization depict a horned person, usually identified as a deity. The most well-known of these depictions is a seal with a figure with a horned headdress, seated in a yogic posture. On this seal, he appears to be ithyphallic, and possibly three-faced. It is not clear if the faces are human or animal. Under his seat are two goats or deer and around him are a rhinoceros, a buffalo, a tiger, and an elephant. The British archaeologist John Marshall, who first excavated Mohenjodaro, labelled it a deity, a proto or early form of Shiva. His identification with Shiva-Pashupati, the lord of animals, has been questioned as Pashupati was the guardian of domestic animals and not associated with wild animals. Others identified him with the Vedic Agni or Rudra. The Indian scholar Shubhangana Atre, using in addition other seals with a similar deity, is among those who saw this as a form of the goddess Diana. Jains identify this deity with an early Jain Tirthankara. Asko Parpola sees similarities to the sitting bull figures of the Elamite culture. The deity shows remarkable similarity to the early Celtic god Cernunnos, particularly to a possible image of him found on a cauldron at Gundestrup in Denmark, dated between the 6th and 2nd centuries BCE. (In new-age revivalism, Cernunnos is worshipped as the god of Wicca or witches, along with Diana as the goddess.) A. Hiltebeitel related the horns with the asura Mahisha, the buffalo demon. Later, there were other horned deities in India, including tribal deities, the Jain deity Naigamesha, and several others. There are horned and forest deities in other parts of the ancient world as well.
Mother goddess: A small female figure in bronze has commonly been called the ‘dancing girl’ though some see her as a goddess. Female figurines in terracotta, found at several sites, are thought to represent worship of a mother goddess, though this too has been questioned. More questionable is the identification of ‘ring stones’ of various sizes, with the yoni, or feminine emblem.
Male images: Sculptures of men have been found at Mohenjodaro and lately at Dholavira in Gujarat. The stone bust of an imposing bearded man is well known though it is not clear if this was a deity or an important person. He has been thought by some to represent a priest-king. There are also phallic-like objects, sometimes identified as early lingas.
Trees: Trees, particularly pipal trees and and its leaves, are depicted. Some seals have figures in trees, including a horned figure, who may be tree deities. Tree worship could have taken place.
Other: There is evidence of worship of fire and sacrifice of animals, from a series of ‘fire altars’ at Kalibangan. The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro may have been a sacred tank where people took a dip or wash before praying, just as today some people dip themselves in rivers or use water in other rituals. One structure in the citadel area of Mohenjodaro looks like a temple but this is not certain. Considering the large area covered, there were probably variations in religion in different areas.