by Roshen Dalal
PARJANYA
A deity described in the Rig Veda, he has three hymns dedicated to him in this text. He is the god of rain clouds and sheds rain. He brings thunder and lightning, and is rich in clouds and water. His chariot is watery, and he nourishes vegetation. He is often called a bull, or a roaring bull. More important rain gods in the Vedas are the Maruts and Indra. Parjanya is associated with Vata and is sometimes considered a name of Indra. The Atharva Veda (4.15) has a hymn to him, where some Rig Vedic verses are repeated. He is also referred to in other Atharva hymns. Parjanya is sometimes identified with Perkunas, the Lithuanian god of thunder. Later, Parjanya was a name of the god Vishnu, and of a Deva Gandharva.
PRAJAPATI
A deity in the Vedas. In the Rig Veda, he is described in a hymn in the tenth or latest book, where he is praised as the creator of heaven and earth, of the waters and of all that lives, of the one god above all other gods. He is prayed to for children (praja). In the Vajasaneyi Samhita, Atharva Veda, and Brahmanas, he is often called the chief god, or father of the gods, the creator of the devas and asuras, and the first sacrificer. He is also known as Ka or ‘who’, as the verse praising him in the Rig Veda uses this pronoun to ask who the greatest god is.
The Maitrayani Samhita (4.2) states that he loved his daughter Usha, and when he approached her, she turned herself into a gazelle. He then became a male gazelle, but the god Rudra threatened to shoot an arrow at him. Prajapati then offered to make Rudra the lord of the beasts, if he refrained from shooting him.
Later, Brahma replaced Prajapati, and the two names became interchangeable. The gods Shiva and Vishnu and some other deities are sometimes called Prajapati in later literature.
PRISHNI
A goddess in the Rig Veda, where she is the mother of the Maruts. The term also refers to something that is speckled. In the context of the Maruts, it is thought to mean a speckled cloud.
PRITHIVI/PRITHVI
A deity, the goddess of the earth, she is described in the Rig Veda where she is usually mentioned along with Dyaus. One hymn is dedicated to her alone. She supports the mountains and forests, and scatters rain. She is said to be firm or steady, great (mahi), and shining. She is also the kind mother, to whom the dead man goes. Literally, Prithivi means ‘one who is broad or wide’, and this term reflects the extensive nature of the earth. Prithivi is described in the Yajur Veda. In the Atharva Veda, a hymn of sixty-three verses is dedicated to her. A few verses of this hymn are given below:
Truth, high and potent Law, the consecrating Rite,
Fervour, Brahma and Sacrifice uphold the Earth,
May she, the queen of all that is and to be, may
Prithivi make ample space and room for us. (1)
O Prithivi, auspicious be thy woodlands, auspicious be thy hills and snow-clad mountains.
Unslain, unwounded, unsubdued, I have set foot upon the Earth,
On Earth, brown, black, ruddy and every-coloured, on the firm earth that Indra guards from danger. (11)
Supporting both the foolish and the weighty, she bears the death both of the good and the evil.
In friendly accord with the boar, Earth opens herself for the wild swine that roams the forest. (48)
(Translated by R.T.H. Griffith)
In later texts, Prithivi is an alternative name for Bhudevi, a consort of Vishnu. In the Puranas, there are several stories about Prithivi as the earth. One narrates how she allowed King Prithu to milk her, and then seeds, vegetables, and various crops came into being. Another famous story is regarding the rescue of Prithivi by Vishnu in his form of Varaha.
PURAMDHI
A goddess whose name appears a few times in the Rig Veda, she is probably one who grants wealth and abundance. In a Zoroastrian Yasht, Parendi is a similar deity, believed to provide riches.
PURUSHA
A Sanskrit term, meaning ‘man’ or ‘person’. In different contexts, it refers to the soul or to god. Purusha represents the eternal principle, the passive or fixed aspect of creation. It is the Truth that sets creation in motion. It is beyond form and shape, the subtle essence of creation. In the Rig Veda (10.90), Purusha represents the primeval person from whom creation emerged. This famous hymn states that Purusha pervades the earth and has 1000 heads, 1000 eyes and 1000 feet. Purusha is the past, present and future, and all creatures are a part of him. Viraj was born from him, and he again from her. Purusha was the sacrificial offering, and spring was the clarified butter, summer the fuel, and autumn the oblation. The four castes arose from him, as well as the sun and moon, Indra and Agni, the elements and space. Thus, here Purusha is similar to the concept of Brahman. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (1.4) states that Purusha was the first, but feeling lonely, he swelled his body and divided it into two parts, male and female. These united, and from them human beings and other creatures were born. Purusha as the creative principle is further described in later texts and in Samkhya philosophy, while Prakriti is the female principle.
PUSHAN/PUSHA
A deity in the Rig Veda, who later declined in importance. Pushan means one who makes something prosper, grow, and thrive. There are eight hymns dedicated to him in the Rig Veda while he is mentioned at least another one hundred and twenty times. He is also mentioned jointly with Indra and with Soma. He is described as the lord of all things, and the guardian of all. He has braided hair and a beard, and carries a golden spear along with an awl or a goad. His chariot is drawn by goats, and he eats gruel. He is referred to in the marriage hymn, and was married to Surya (Suryaa), daughter of the sun god, Surya. He is described as ‘glowing’ and leads the dead to the distant abode of the fathers. He has golden ships that move in the oceans of the air. He is a messenger of Surya and a helper of Savitr. He makes hidden things easy to find, and protects cattle and horses, and weaves and smoothens the wool of sheep. He is known as Pashupa, ‘protector of animals’, the only deity in the Vedas with this title. He is the guardian of roads and is prayed to for protection from all dangers on the way, including wolves. He is called vimucho napat or ‘son of deliverance’ and Vimochana, ‘deliverer’. Pushan’s goat is connected with the ashvamedha or horse sacrifice and leads the horse to the other world. He is referred to in the Atharva Veda (16.9, 18.2), where he guides the dead to the world of the gods. The Vajasaneyi Samhita refers to him as a guide (prapathya) on roads. In both Grihya and Shrauta Sutras, prayers are offered to him before the beginning of a journey. He is one of the Adityas, and is mentioned in the Mahabharata and Puranas. He is sometimes compared with the Greek god Pan, who is also associated with goats, and it is suggested that Pushan and Pan had a common origin. Pan, Roman Faunus, in turn, has been equated with the Celtic Cernunnos (also spelt Kernunnos), and the horned god of Wicca. In India, Naigamesha is a later goat-headed deity. It is interesting that the famous horned yogi depicted on a Harappan Civilization seal is similar to a later depiction of a horned deity often identified with Cernunnos.
RAKA
A goddess mentioned in the Rig Veda, she is associated with fertility and wealth. According to the Vishnu Purana, she is the presiding deity of the day of the full moon.
RATRI
A goddess of the night, but not of the dark night, she is the daughter of heaven and the goddess of the starlit night. Only one hymn in the Rig Veda is addressed to her. Ratri fills the valleys and heights, driving away the darkness with her light. Ratri is also mentioned in the Mahabharata.
RIBHUS/RIBHU-GANA
A group of semi-divine beings. Eleven hymns are dedicated to them in the Rig Veda and they are mentioned in that text at least one hundred times. There are three Ribhus, whose names are Ribhu or Ribhukshan, Vaja, and Vibhuvan. They are known as Saudhanvana (sons of Sudhanvan) and are helpers of Indra. They are also said to be descendants of Manu, with Agni as their brother. They have a ‘sunlike appearance’, and wear helmets and necklaces. They possess horses and are prayed to for prosperity. They made their old parents young again. They made prayer, sacrifice, and the two worlds. T
hey went around the sky and, after wandering for a long time, reached the house of Savitr, who made them immortal. Then they went to the house of Agohya, and after sleeping for twelve days, they made fields and grass, caused the streams to flow in the right direction, and brought water into the lowlands. ‘Twelve days’ may actually mean twelve months, as another passage suggests they slept for one year, and then asked who awakened them. Some scholars think the twelve days refers to the time of the winter solstice, when the earth is dormant. Savitr or Agohya refers to the sun. According to some passages, they were originally men, but because of their skilful deeds became immortal. The Ribhus are also mentioned in the Mahabharata and later texts.
RODASI
A goddess mentioned in the Rig Veda, associated with the Maruts. As she is always mentioned with them, she is thought to have been their wife.
ROHITA
A god in the Atharva Veda, he is a creator deity. He is said to be the highest being, representing fire and the sun. The name means ‘red’ or ‘reddish’.
RUDRA
A deity, usually regarded as a storm god, and an early form of the god Shiva. In the Rig Veda, three full hymns are dedicated to him. He is also invoked jointly with Soma in one hymn, and in part of another. His name appears seventy-five times in this text. Rudra is described as dazzling, shining like the sun or like gold, and wearing golden ornaments. His weapons include a thunderbolt, a lightning shaft, and bows and arrows. The Maruts are his sons, and he is sometimes identified with Agni. The Atharva Veda states that he is copper-coloured and red, with a blue neck and blue tufts. Rudra is called Mahadeva, a name of Shiva, in the Yajur Veda. This text has the Shri Rudram or Shata-Rudriya (Vajasaneyi Samhita, Chapter 16; Taittiriya Samhita 4.5, 4.7), believed to be one of the most powerful Vedic chants used in the worship of Shiva. The chant has two parts, known as Namakam and Chamakam, which have been put together, each divided into eleven anuvakas (sections). According to this, he dwells in mountains and is clothed in skin. He is young, fierce, strong, unassailable, and wise, and though benevolent, his anger is to be feared. He has a fierce and formidable nature, but is also a healer. Rudra was accepted as a name of the god Shiva and usually represents the fierce or destructive aspect of Shiva. Some have interpreted the Shri Rudram as referring to Vishnu or to a universal deity.
SADHYAS OR SADHYA-GANA
A class of semi-divine beings, in the Rig Veda, they are called the ‘gods of old’ and in the Taittiriya Samhita are said to have existed before creation. According to the Puranas, they are the sons of Dharma and Sadhya, who was a daughter of Daksha. They were associated with the ashvamedha sacrifice, and with the Pushyasnana, the sacred bath before the annual consecration ceremony of a king. Seventeen Sadhyas are listed in some Puranas. Sadhyas are frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata. They are said to rule the creatures through the virtue of yoga.
SARAMA
In the Rig Veda, she is the dog and messenger of the god Indra. She was the mother of the Sarameya, who accompanied the god Yama. In the Bhagavata Purana, Sarama is one of the daughters of Daksha, from whom all wild animals were descended.
SARAMEYA
Two watchdogs of the god Yama, the god of the dead, the Sarameya had four eyes each and their names were Shabala and Shyama. Their mother was Sarama, the dog of Indra. In several ancient religious myths, dogs are associated with the underworld and the dead. In Zoroastrianism, Yima, the counterpart of Yama, had four dogs. In the Arda Viraf Namah, a Zoroastrian text, Zerioug Goash is a dog who guards the Chinvat Bridge that connects this world with the other. In Greek myths, the dog Kerberos (Cerberus) guards the underworld and has three heads, a dragon’s tail, and snakes on his back. His name is thought to be similar to Shabala. In Egyptian myths, Anubis, with a jackal or dog’s head, was called the ‘opener of the way’ to the land of the dead.
SARANYU
A goddess mentioned in one hymn in the Rig Veda (10.17), where she is said to be the daughter of Tvashtr and wife of Vivasvat. The term is also an adjective meaning ‘swift’.
SARASVAN OR SARASVAT
A male deity associated with Sarasvati in two Rig Vedic hymns. In one hymn (7.96), there are three verses dedicated to Sarasvat, after those praising Sarasvati. He is prayed to by those who want children, wives, riches, and protection. In another passage (1.64), he is said to refresh worshippers with rain. His nature has been interpreted as a guardian of the celestial waters. He is sometimes considered the same as Apam Napat.
SARASVATI
A sacred river personified as a goddess, first mentioned in the Rig Veda as a great river flowing into the sea. In the Rig, there are three hymns in praise of the river, and several other verses. She is the best of mothers, the best of rivers, and the best of goddesses. As Amba, ‘mother’, she gives renown to those who are unknown. She gave a son called Divodasa to Vadhryashva (6.61). She defeats enemies and protects her worshippers. She is connected with other deities including Pushan, Indra, the Maruts and the Ashvins, with the goddesses Ida and Bharati, and occasionally with Mahi and Hotra (Hotraa). Sarasvat is a male deity associated with Sarasvati in two Rig Vedic hymns. In the Brahmanas, Sarasvati is identified with Vach, goddess of speech, and later becomes a great goddess of wisdom.
SAVITR
A solar deity to whom eleven hymns are dedicated in the Rig Veda. In addition, there are over one hundred and fifty other references to him. Almost everything about Savitr is golden. He is said to be golden-eyed, golden-tongued, and has golden hands and arms. He drives in a golden car, which has a golden pole, and is drawn by radiant horses (in one passage, brown, white-footed horses). Golden in colour, he is said to light up the air, heaven, and earth. It is easy to travel on his ancient pathways. Savitr provides immortality to the devas and is said to have made the Ribhus immortal. He is prayed to take the spirit of the dead to the place where the righteous live. His light constantly shines in the east, and he protects people from evil spirits and bad dreams. Savitr is among those termed an asura, here meaning a great deity. He follows the laws of the universe, and even the wind and waters move according to his orders. He is praised by various gods including the Vasus, Aditi, Varuna, Mitra, and Aryaman. Other gods, including Indra, have to follow his will. He is associated with Prajapati, Pushan, Mitra, and Bhaga, and sometimes seems identical with Surya, but in other passages is distinctly different. He stimulates or arouses all that lives, protects worshippers, and bestows immortality. Some scholars feel that Savitr in the Rig Veda reflects the divine power of the sun in a personified form, while Surya represents the sun in a more concrete way. The sacred Gayatri Mantra is recited to this deity. In the Mahabharata, Savitr is one of the twelve Adityas, often identified with Vivasvat. Savitr is later a name of the god Shiva and of Vishnu. Savitr is also referred to as Savita.
SHACHI PAULOMI
A name of Indrani (see above), the wife of Indra.
SHRADDHA
A goddess, whose name means ‘faith’. She was personified as a deity in the Rig Veda, where one hymn (10.151) is dedicated to her. Through her, the sacred fire burns and the offering of ghi is made. The deity also grants wealth to her worshippers. In the Brahmanas, she is said to be a daughter of the sun god, Surya, or of Prajapati. In the Mahabharata, she is said to be a daughter of Daksha and wife of Dharma, or a daughter of Vivasvat (Surya).
SHRI OR SHRIDEVI
A goddess, a name of Lakshmi, who was the consort of Vishnu. Literally, it means ‘auspicious’ or ‘prosperous’. The name Shri occurs in the Rig Veda, while the Shatapatha Brahmana states that Shri emerged from Prajapati. There are several references to Shri in the Mahabharata, and in later texts.
SINDHU
A river identified with the Indus, who is also considered a goddess. In the Rig Veda, hymn 10.75 is mainly in praise of the Sindhu, though it also lists a number of other rivers. Another hymn (3.33) is dedicated to the Vipash and Shutudri, tributaries of the Sindhu. There are several other references to the river.
SINIVALI
&nbs
p; A goddess mentioned in the Rig Veda, she is prayed to for children and is said to be a sister of the gods. The Atharva Veda (8.46) says she is the wife of Vishnu. In the Brahmanas, she is a deity connected with the moon. Three other moon goddesses were Kuhu, Anumati, and Raka. They are connected with different phases of the moon and are all related to childbirth, fertility and, also in Vedic days, to cattle.
SITA
A goddess, she is later known as the wife of the god Rama. The story of Rama and Sita is first narrated in the Ramayana of Valmiki, a Sanskrit text of around the 1st century CE or earlier. However, Sita as a fertility deity and goddess of the earth existed even before Valmiki’s Ramayana, and is mentioned in the Rig Veda. In hymn 4.57 to agricultural deities, Sita (furrow) is prayed to for blessings and good crops. In the Kaushika Sutra, she is the wife of Parjanya. In the Paraskara Grihya Sutra, she is the wife of Indra.