by Roshen Dalal
Later one of the most important deities, Vishnu has five hymns dedicated to him in the Rig Veda, and is mentioned around one hundred times. His three strides or steps are frequently referred to and he is said to be young, with an immense body. Two of his steps could be seen by men, that is, they were on the earth, but with the third he went beyond the world of mortals, or into the region where birds fly. His third name is in heaven, and his highest step is like an eye in heaven. Agni, in this highest point of Vishnu, guards the cows. Here, where Indra and Vishnu live, there are swiftly moving cows with many horns. Both these references to cows are thought to imply clouds. Vishnu guards and lives near the highest place of his third step, and all beings live in his three steps. Vishnu’s three steps are thought to refer to the course of the sun. Aurnabhava, Yaska’s predecessor mentioned in the Nirukta, says it is the rising, traversing, and setting sun, while Shakapuni, another of Yaska’s predecessors, says Vishnu represents a solar deity, moving through the three parts of the universe. Vishnu sets in motion his ninety steeds (days) with four names (seasons), like a revolving wheel (chakra). This probably refers to the solar year of 360 days. In the Atharva Veda, Vishnu’s head becomes the sun. In the Rig Veda, Vishnu is said to live on the mountain (girikshit, girishtha). In another passage, Vishnu and Indra are together called the two who cannot be deceived, who stand on the peak (sanuni) of the mountains ‘as it were with an unerring steed’. In the Taittiriya Samhita, Vishnu takes on the dwarf form, to redeem the earth from the asuras. This also occurs in the Taittiriya Brahmana and the Shatapatha Brahmana. In the Rig Veda, Indra and Vishnu are often referred to together and, in some hymns, Vishnu helps Indra in his fight against Vritra. Vishnu and Indra together conquered the dasa, destroyed the ninety-nine forts of Shambara, and defeated Varchin. Indra drinks the Soma pressed by Vishnu in three cups. In one passage (6.17), Vishnu cooks 100 buffaloes for Indra, referred to elsewhere as well. In other passages, Vishnu carries away 100 buffaloes and a milk mixture belonging to the boar (emusham); Indra shoots across the mountain and kills the boar. In a hymn (8.15), Vishnu, Mitra, Varuna, and the Maruts praise Indra with their songs. Vishnu is also associated with the Maruts. In the Brahmanas, Vishnu is often identified with the sacrifice. The myths of Vishnu’s three steps and of his killing the boar were further developed in the Brahmanas, before they reached their final form in the epics and Puranas. The Brahmanas also narrate the story of Manu and the flood, but here the fish is an incarnation of Prajapati. Prajapati is also referred to as a tortoise. These stories formed the base of two of the later incarnations of Vishnu.
In the Avesta ritual, the Amshaspands (Amesha Spentas) also take three steps from earth to heaven.
VISHVAKARMA/VISHVAKARMAN
The divine architect. In the Rig Veda, there are two hymns in his praise (10.81, 82) as well as a few other references. He is considered an all-seeing god, four-faced and four-armed, the creator of heaven and earth. He is the lord of speech (vachaspati) and gives other gods their names. He is also referred to as dhatr and vidhatr, ‘establisher’ and ‘disposer’. In the Brahmanas, he is identified with Prajapati. In post-Vedic times, he is considered both the architect of the universe and the artificer of the gods. He also made their weapons and chariots.
VISHVEDEVA/VISHVADEVAS
A class of semi-divine beings. In the Vedas they are said to be preservers of men and bestowers of rewards. Forty hymns are dedicated to the Vishvedevas in the Rig Veda, which are meant to refer to all the gods together. Sometimes they are mentioned as a separate group in the Vedas. In the Mahabharata, they are a distinctive group of sixty-four Vishvedevas, whose names are listed.
VIVASVAT/VIVASVAN
In the Rig Veda, Vivasvat does not have a hymn specially dedicated to him but is referred to at least thirty times. He is the father of the Ashvins and of the god Yama. Manu is referred to as Vivasvat, indicating he too is the son of Vivasvat, as in later texts. In the Atharva Veda and Shatapatha Brahmana, he is called Manu Vaivasvata. The Rig Veda states the gods were born from Vivasvat, and the Taittiriya Samhita says that people were descended from Vivasvan Adityah. Indra and Soma are closely connected with Vivasvat, and he is often mentioned in Mandala 9 in connection with Soma. Vivasvat is a god of light or of the rising sun. Vivasvat’s wife is Saranyu. In both the Rig and the Atharva, the Adityas pray that Vivasvat’s arrow should not kill them before they become old. In the Atharva, Vivasvat protects people from Yama. In the Yajur texts and in the Brahmanas, he is known as an Aditya. In later texts, Vivasvan is a name of the sun, similar to the Iranian Vivanhvant, father of Yima. Some scholars feel that in the Vedas he cannot be considered a deity, only the ancestor of human beings. He is included in the list of the 108 names of Surya in the Mahabharata. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna says, ‘I revealed this Yoga to Vivasvat’.
YAMA
A deity, the god of the dead. According to the Vedas, the spirits of those who died went to his abode. He was the son of Vivasvat or Vivasvan, and had a twin sister named Yami or Yamuna. In some passages, it is said that all people were descended from them. Another hymn (10.14) states that Yama was the first of men who died and the first to find his way to the other world, so that others could later follow his path. This funeral hymn also connects Yama with the Angirasas. It asks the dead man to proceed to the house of Yama, past the two four-eyed dogs, the Sarameyas. The hymn also states that the dead man takes on a new and glorious body. An offering of Soma is made to the deity. In the Mahabharata, he was the son of the god Surya by Samjana, and the brother of Vaivasvata, the seventh and present Manu. By this time Yama became known as the judge of the dead. In later texts, he is the guardian or Dikapala of the southern quarter and is therefore named Dakshinapati. In Zoroastrianism, his counterpart is Yima.
YAMI
The twin sister of the god Yama, she is mentioned in the Rig Veda. In later texts, she was also known as Yamuna and was a personification of the river Yamuna. In the Rig Veda, there is a dialogue between her and her brother Yama in which she asks him to unite with her and says that she loves him. Yama however refuses and says that such an action would not be correct (see Chapter 7).
OTHER DIVINE BEINGS
apsaras
Apsaras or divine nymphs, who are frequently mentioned in later literature, are not prominent in the Rig Veda, where there are very few references to them. An apsara, living in the highest heaven, is said to smile at her beloved (a gandharva). Vasishtha is said to be born from an apsara, and to sit close to them. Another passage states that apsaras of the sea flow to Soma. One hymn (10.136) describes a long-haired ascetic, whose powers included being able to move on the path of apsaras and gandharvas. A wife of a gandharva, referred to as Apyayosha, or ‘nymph of the waters’, is probably also a reference to the apsaras. Thus, in the earliest text, the apsaras are associated with water. In the Rig Veda, the apsara Urvashi is the mother of Vasishtha. The most famous story regarding Urvashi is her relationship with Pururavas. This is first narrated in the Rig (10.95) and later elaborated on in several texts. The Rig Veda hymn is a dialogue between the two. Urvashi has spent four autumns with the human Pururavas, son of Ila. After she goes back to her heavenly abode, Pururavas asks her to return but, in the Rig Veda this does not seem to happen, though Pururavas is promised bliss in heaven.
In the Atharva Veda apsaras are associated with water, rivers, and with trees. They live in the nyagrodha (banyan), ashvattha (pipal), and in the udumbara and plaksha (other fig trees). Some names of apsaras are mentioned, which are the same as those of herbs or plants. These include Gugguli and Naladi. Among other apsaras mentioned in the Atharva Veda are Ugrajit, Ugrampashya, and Rashtrabhrit. The Vajasaneyi Samhita refers to Urvashi and Menaka. The Atharva says apsaras bring luck to the dice player but they can also negatively affect the mind, hence sometimes they are feared. Apsaras are said to be very beautiful. According to the Shatapatha Brahmana, they could assume any form they liked, and frequently appeared as aquatic birds. In post-Vedic texts, both apsaras and gandharvas
also live in mountains. The Mahabharata states that warriors who died in battle were transported by the apsaras, in brightly coloured chariots, to Indra’s heaven. A similar legend occurs regarding the Valkyries. There are various later accounts of the origin of apsaras. Later texts indicate there were thousands or even millions of apsaras.
GANDHARVAS
The Rig Veda refers to gandharva mainly in the singular, an apsara being his wife. The term appears twenty times, and only three times in the plural. He was a deity like the sun, who generated rain. He knew the secrets of heaven and the divine truths. In this text, gandharvas are associated with water but there is no indication of their later association with music and dance. The Rig Veda does not have a clear description of them though it says they are wind-haired and wear surabhi (fragrant clothes). In the Atharva Veda, they are mentioned thirty-two times, half in the plural. In the Atharva and Taittiriya Samhita, gandharvas are referred to in a group. The Atharva says they numbered 6333. Gandharva is said to guard Soma in the celestial sphere. In the Rig, the gandharva is said to live in the region of the sky or air. In the Atharva, he is said to live in heaven. In the Rig, he is also connected with light, the sun, and a golden-winged bird who is called the messenger of Varuna. In the Vajasaneyi Samhita, he is connected with the nakshatras and, in the Atharva, particularly with Rohini. In Mandala 9 of the Rig Veda, he is associated with Soma. He guards Soma and protects the devas. The Maitrayani Samhita says the gandharvas preserved the Soma for the devas but then it was stolen, and therefore they were later excluded from drinking it. In the Taittiriya Samhita, Soma is requested to take the form of an eagle and evade the gandharva Vishvavasu. The Yajur texts and the Aitareya Brahmana say that Soma was bought from the Gandharvas in exchange for the goddess Vach. In the Avesta (Yasht 5.38), the Ganderewa, who lives in the sea Vourukasha where white Haoma is found, was defeated by Kereshaspa. In the Rig Veda (4.27), Krishanu, an archer, shoots at the eagle that carries off Soma. In the Taittiriya Aranyaka, Krishanu is said to be a gandharva. The Atharva says they are shaggy, with half animal forms, and the gandha (smell) of the earth rises to them.
There is no conclusion on the early nature of the gandharvas. In the Mahabharata, they seem to be a people living in hilly and forested areas, though they are also described as celestial beings. The Puranas and other texts state that they lived in the sky or atmosphere, and prepared Soma for the gods. Their food is the scent of fragrant herbs, and the smell of water, and they wear sweet-smelling clothes. They love women, are very handsome, and are divine singers, dancers, and musicians.
ASURAS
Originally a divine being, the word later came to mean a demon. In the Rig Veda, several deities are referred to as asura, including Agni, Brihaspati, Dyaus, Pushan, Savitr, and Varuna but by the Later Vedic period, asuras were at war with the devas (gods). They were supernatural beings with considerable powers, which the devas recognized. In some texts, devas and asuras are not actual beings but represent different aspects of a person. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad the asuras and devas are usually said to be in conflict, though they both originated from Prajapati. In later texts, there are mixed references to asuras.
At times, the devas temporarily entered into a pact with them, as when churning the ocean of milk for amrita or divine nectar. In the Mahabharata, the Asura Maya was a great architect and was well respected. He built a magnificent palace for the Pandavas at Indraprastha. Shukracharya, the guru of the asuras was extremely learned, and is mentioned with respect in several texts.
Some Puranas state that the asuras ruled the earth for ten yugas, after which it was returned to the devas. The terms daitya and danava are used as synonyms for asuras. They were two different categories of asuras but are often used interchangeably. Asuras have also been seen as a historical group.
DIVINE ANIMALS
Some animals are considered divine or are symbols of certain attributes or qualities. Cows, for instance, often symbolize clouds. Sarama and the Sarameyas are divine dogs. Horses or other animals such as deer, buffaloes, or asses—who draw the chariots of the gods—also have divinity. A few divine horses are described here.
Dadhikra
A divine horse, described in the Rig Veda, where there are four hymns in praise of him. He is swift, and speeds like the wind, flying through the air like a swooping eagle. He fights against thousands and wins. He was given by the gods Mitra and Varuna to the Purus. He is also known as Dadhikravan, and is associated with Usha, the dawn. He is said to be symbolic of knowledge, or the morning sun, or, alternatively, a real horse, who was deified.
Etasha
In the Rig Veda, the name of a divine horse of the sun god Surya.
Paidva
A mythical horse mentioned in the Rig Veda, which was given by the Ashvins to Pedu. The horse is described as white (shveta), praiseworthy, and to be invoked by men. He is powerful like Indra and a slayer of dragons or snakes (ahihan). Invincible in battles, he is a conqueror who seeks heaven. Paidva is thought to be either a real horse or symbolic of the sun.
Tarkshya
A divine horse in the Rig Veda, described in terms similar to Dadhikra. He is swift as a bird, and in later texts, is identified with Garuda, the eagle-vehicle of the god Vishnu. Tarkshya was later the name of a rishi.
COWS
In the extracts below, it is clear that references to cows are not always to them as animals. The term can also have an esoteric or symbolic meaning.
I
Not men of magic skill, nor men of wisdom impair the gods’ first steadfast ordinances.
Never may the earth and heaven which know not malice, nor the fixed hills, be bowed by sage devices.
One, moving not away, supports six burdens; the cows proceed to him the true, the highest.
Near stand three mighty ones who travel swiftly; two are concealed from sight, one is apparent.
The bull who wears all shapes, the triple-breasted, three-uddered, with a brood in many places, Rules majestic with his triple aspect, the Bull, the everlasting ones’ lord.
(Rig Veda 3.56)
II
My thought with fine discernment has discovered the cow who wanders free without a herdsman, Her who has straightaway poured me food in plenty: Indra and Agni therefore are her praisers.
Indra and Pushan, deft of hand and mighty, well-pleased, have drained the heaven’s exhaustless milk.
(Rig Veda 3.57)
III
The ancient’s milch-cow yields the things we long for; the son of Dakshina travels between them.
She with the splendid chariot brings refulgence. The praise of Ushas has awoken the Ashvins.
(Rig Veda 3.58)
IV
One should meditate on the Vedas as a cow. Her four teats are the sounds svaha, vashat, hanta and svadha. The devas live on two of her teats, the sounds svaha and vashat; men on the sound hanta; the pitris on the sound svadha; the vital force (prana) is her bull (rishabha), and the mind her calf (vatsa).
(Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 5.8.1)
SOMA
Though there are concrete references to Soma as a plant, the term also refers to amrita, the divine nectar of immortality, and is used this way even in later texts.
In the Rig Veda, many passages indicate this sense, and not that of an intoxicating drink of the material world. Translations do vary but all versions also indicate the divine nature of Soma, different from that of a drink from a plant that grows in the high mountains or elsewhere. Common interpretations are that the ecstasies produced by Soma the drink led to it being worshipped as a deity. However, it seems more likely that Soma was a name of amrita, the mystical nectar of immortality. Amrita, as various myths and texts indicate, is the divine element in a person that is revealed when the layers of consciousness are purified. It is possible that Soma was a name given to an actual drink, only at a later date. At a still later stage, this was used in sacrificial ritual, and sacrifices became associated with Soma the drink instead of Soma the divine elem
ent. Here are some passages from Griffith’s translation (spellings and punctuation slightly modified) that show that Soma is not just a drink.
I
O Soma, flowing on thy way, win thou and conquer high renown; and make us better than we are.
Win thou the light, win heavenly light, and, Soma all felicities; and make us better than we are.
Win skilful strength and mental power, O Soma drive away our foes; and make us better than we are.
(Rig Veda 9.4, verses 1–3)
II
7. Aid us in holy rites; O Pavamana, drive away
Dark shades that must be met in fight.
8. Give, Pavamana, high renown, give kine and steeds and hero sons;
Win for us wisdom, win the light.
(Rig Veda 9.9, verses 7–8)
III
Like chariots that thunder on their way, like coursers eager for renown,
Have Soma drops flowed forth for wealth.
Forth have they rushed from holding hands, like chariots that are urged to speed, like joyful songs of singing men.
The Somas deck themselves with milk, as kings are graced with eulogies,
And with seven priests, the sacrifice.
Pressed for the gladdening draught, the drops flow abundantly with song, the Soma juices in a stream.
Winning Vivasvan’s glory, and producing morning’s light, the suns pass through the openings of the cloth.