by Roshen Dalal
NAVAGVAS
A group of rishis mentioned fourteen times in the Rig Veda, sometimes with the Angirasas, Bhrigus, and Atharvans, and along with them are said to be ancient pitris. They are referred to with the Angirasas as helping Indra release the cows from the Panis. In one hymn, they are said to press Soma, sing praises of Indra, and break open the cow stall. Navagva, in singular form, seems to be a name of Angiras or of Dadhyanch. According to Macdonell, Navagva probably means ‘going in a company of nine’ and refers in plural to ‘a group of nine ancient priestly ancestors’.
It may be significant that in late Zoroastrian texts, nine ancestors of Zarathushtra are mentioned.
PARASHARA SHAKTYA
An ancient rishi who is mentioned in the Rig Veda along with the rishis Shatayatu and Vasishtha. According to the Anukramani, he composed some hymns in Mandala 1 of the Rig. The Nirukta states he was the son of Vasishtha. In the Mahabharata and Puranas, he is described as the son of Shakti and Adrishyanti, the grandson of Vasishtha, and the father of Vyasa.
PIPPALADA
An ancient rishi, who founded a school of the Atharva Veda, which was named after him. In the Prashna Upanishad, he guides other rishis on the path to enlightenment.
SHUNAHSHEPA AJIGARTI (LATER DEVARATA VAISHVAMITRA)
A rishi to whom some hymns of the Rig Veda are attributed, his story is narrated in later texts, including the Brahmanas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas, with some variations. According to the Aitareya Brahmana, Raja Harishchandra was childless. He prayed for a son, and promised the god Varuna to offer him as a sacrifice. However, after his son Rohita was born, he kept putting off the sacrifice. When he finally decided to sacrifice him, Rohita refused and went into the forest. He came across a poor rishi Ajigarta, who had three sons, and bought his second son Shunahshepa for 100 cows, to offer him as a sacrifice in his place. Ajigarta received 200 more cows to bind Shunahshepa to the post and kill him but, as Shunahshepa recited verses in praise of deities, he was saved. He was adopted by the rishi Vishvamitra who treated him like his son.
VAIKHANASA
The Vaikhanasas were a group of rishis. Two are specifically referred to in the anukramanis as authors of one hymn each in mandalas 9 and 10: Shata Vaikhanasa and Vamra Vaikhanasa.
VAMADEVA
A rishi, the composer of a number of hymns in Mandala 4, he was also known as Vamadeva Gautama. Brihaduktha Vamadevya, the composer of some hymns in Mandala 10, seems to have been a member of his family.
VASISHTHA
An ancient rishi, he has many hymns of the Rig Veda ascribed to him, including those of Mandala 7 as well as some others. He is said to be one of the seven great rishis, and also one of the ten Prajapatis. In one of the hymns of the Rig Veda, he and the rishi Agastya are described as the offspring of Mitra and Varuna. When these two gods saw the beautiful apsara Urvashi, their seed fell and the two rishis were born from it. In another account, Vasishtha was Varuna’s son, associated with the Tritsus, a Rig Vedic clan, and was the priest of King Sudas. One hymn of his consists of a sleep spell, which according to some commentators was uttered when he entered the house of Varuna to get some food, and a dog barked at him.
The rivalry between him and the rishi Vishvamitra is often described, right from the time of the Rig Veda. In the Mahabharata, Vasishtha is said to be the purohita or priest of several kings. There are several stories about Vasishtha in the epics and Puranas, as well as a number of local legends.
The rishi Vasishtha was one of the mildest and most pious rishis described in texts. He had all powers but never used them to benefit himself.
Some members of his family, including Chitramaha Vasishtha and Mrilika Vasishtha, are also said to be authors of Rig Vedic hymns. Parashara Shaktya was his grandson.
VIRUPAS
A group of rishis connected with the Angirasas. In the Rig Veda, they are mentioned three times in the plural. They are said to be born from Agni or from heaven.
Descendants of the Virupas mentioned as authors of hymns include Nabha Prabhedana Vairupa, Sadhi Vairupa, and Shata Prabhedana Vairupa.
VISHVAMITRA
An ancient rishi. In the Rig Veda, the hymns of Mandala 3 are assigned to him, and he is said to be the son of Kushika. According to later texts, he was the son of Gadhi, King of Kannauj, a descendant of Puru, and a king himself. His intense rivalry with the rishi Vasishtha is described in several texts. This rivalry is even mentioned in the Rig Veda, though here Vishvamitra is not described as a king. There are several stories about Vishvamitra in the epics and Puranas. Vishvamitra was an immensely powerful rishi but was always prone to anger.
Members of his family or descendants are also mentioned in the anukramanis as the authors of hymns. These include Ashtaka, Kata, Madhuchhanda (see above), Purana, Renu and Rishabha, Kushika Saubhara, Gadhi Kaushika, Kushika Aishirathi, and Prajapati Vaishvamitra.
VYASA
A rishi of ancient days. According to tradition, Vyasa arranged the Vedas, compiled the Mahabharata, and was the author of the Puranas. His life is described in the Mahabharata and other texts. He was the son of the rishi Parashara and Satyavati. Parashara was the grandson of the rishi Vasishtha.
Several Vyasas are mentioned in the Puranas as incarnations of Vishnu or of Shiva. According to the Vishnu Purana, in every Dvapara Yuga, Vishnu (in the form of Vyasa) divides the Veda, which is actually one, into many, to adapt it to the capacities of the people. Thus Vyasas are born in successive ages to arrange and propagate the Vedas and other texts. While this is the traditional view scholars feel Vyasa is a title used by many of the authors and compilers of ancient texts.
YAJNAVALKYA
An ancient rishi, who is said to have composed the Vajasaneyi Samhita or White Yajur Veda as well as the Shatapatha Brahmana, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, and the Yajnavalkya Smriti. It is unlikely that he was the author of all these texts, as they are of different dates.
SAPTA RISHIS
A group of seven rishis, who are referred to four times in the Rig Veda. They are said to be ancient and divine, associated with the gods. One hymn refers to seven hotrs with whom Manu made the first offering to the gods. In later texts, these rishis are mentioned by name, though the names listed sometimes differ. The seven rishis referred to as a group are: Bharadvaja, Kashyapa, Gotama, Atri, Vishvamitra, Jamadagni, Vasishtha.
ANCIENT RISHIS
The most ancient rishis, said to have lived in the distant past, seem to have been the Angirasas, Bhrigus, Navagvas, and Atharvans.
RISHIS AS DEVAS
One or more rishis who were devotees of the god Indra adopted Indra as their own name. This rishi name has been found both in the Rig Veda and Yajur Veda, and is commented on by Sayana. Agni and several other gods are also named as authors of hymns; this could be when the rishi name is not known or when a rishi deliberately adopted the name of a deity.
Chapter 10
Ritual and Sacrifice
The Vedas are often seen as ritual texts. Both ritual and sacrifice form important parts of these. According to the French Indologist Louis Renou, ‘Vedic religion is first and foremost a liturgy, and only secondarily a mythological or speculative system; we must therefore investigate it as a liturgy.’
The sacrifice, known in Sanskrit as yajna, is of many different types. There are cosmic sacrifices resulting in creation, ritual sacrifices to propitiate a deity or gain some desire, and internal sacrifices, which is the offering of oneself for a divine purpose.
Vedic rituals are still performed in India. Apart from abbreviated birth or marriage or other domestic rites, Soma and Shrauta rituals are still performed.
AIMS OF A SACRIFICE
The sacrifice is considered supremely important, as a creative power to harness nature, and is identified with Prajapati, the creator, or with Vishnu. Agni, fire, is identified with Prajapati, and with the fire altar, as well as the time taken to build it.
Here, we will look mainly at ritual sacrifices in the four Vedic Samhitas, wit
h reference to the details provided in the Later Vedic texts. Broadly, all ritual sacrifices were performed with the aim of gaining the object of one’s desire, be it wealth, prosperity, happiness, strength and victory, or something more definite. The sacrifices aimed to do this either through rituals which involved propitiating and praying to the gods, or through rituals that, people believed, would compel the gods to grant the desires or compel certain events to take place. All rituals are believed to provide occult connections with the divine. In several places, the symbolic nature of the sacrifice is indicated, as when a cooking pot is said to represent the sky and the earth, as well as the god Matarishvan (Vajasaneyi Samhita 1.2), and the fire brought for the fire altar is called a beautiful winged bird, representing different melodies and chants.
TEXTS
References to the sacrifices can be traced to the Rig Veda and Atharva Veda. The Sama Veda and Yajur Veda were specially compiled for the sacrificial ritual. The Brahmanas both describe and explain the sacrifices. Later texts on sacrifices include the Grihya Sutras and Shrauta Sutras.
TYPES OF SACRIFICES
There were both simple and complex types of ritual sacrifices. All power and accomplishment was linked with sacrifice, and thus sacrifice came to be identified with the gods and with a supreme creator. As the sacrificial system became well-established, a sacrifice had to be performed according to the precise and exact directions laid down by tradition, and only by the brahmana caste. Among the sacrifices conducted, in ancient days in India, there were several to increase or assert the power of a king, such as the ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), rajasuya, vajapeya, punar abhisheka, and aindra mahabhisheka. Other sacrifices included fire sacrifices of the agnihotra and agnishtoma, and daily household sacrifices.
Later, a short form of this sacrifice was devised, which consists of reciting the Gayatri Mantra five times, while focusing on the five objects of worship of the pancha-maha-yajna (see below). Other types of sacrifices included offering lights, incense, flowers, etc., along with ritual prayers.
TERMS USED IN THE SACRIFICIAL RITUAL
The sacrificial ritual had a special terminology. Some of the terms commonly used are given here:
Yajya: (invocatory) verses
Purovakya: the verse to a deity, requesting him or her to attend the sacrifice
Anuvakya: verses to invite the gods to the sacrifice
Nivid: proclamation; the name assigned to eleven prose formulas, each of about sixty-five words; some Rig suktas seem versified and amplified nivids; the nivids were inserted in the shastras or suktas which were verses of praise
Vashat call (vashatkara): the summons to the sacrifice
Shastra: hymns or verses of praise
Stutis: laudations; traditionally some Rig Vedic hymns are known as stutis
Ajya: the ghi offering
Sruc: spoon
Darvi: ladle used to pour ghi, etc. on the fire.
Graha: cup
Savana: pressing
Sada: the ritual arena
Ishti: a sacrifice to fulfil a wish; ishtis are still performed to fulfil specific wishes
Here are some terms related specifically to chanting:
Rik: an entire verse or mantra
Girah: words of a pada or quarter
Uktha: recitation of certain verses
Shamsa: a mantra praising the power of a deity
Stotra: the term for the basic unit of verses to be sung, usually a triplet, though there are also longer units
Stoma: the form in which the stotra is chanted; can have varying numbers of verses, but often indicates the chanting of three riks in different ways
Sama: song or tune
Homa, havana, or yaga are later post-Vedic terms for yajnas.
SACRIFICES IN THE RIG VEDA
The Rig Veda has many passages, which were later used both in rituals and sacrifices, and some which were from the beginning connected with various rituals. According to some scholars, the Rig Veda was a liturgical text from its inception while others feel it came to be used later in rituals, and was not originally meant for this purpose. The Sanskrit scholar V.M. Apte believed that there must have been a separate Rig Veda for ritual use.
The Rig Veda refers to various priests and aspects of rituals. Many priests associated with sacrifices are mentioned. One passage refers to the following priests: hotr, potr, neshtr, agnidh, prashastr, adhvaryu, and brahman. Another passage mentions the udgatr and samaga (saman singer). Initially, possibly, the hotr alone invoked the gods and prepared the offering. Later the adhvaryu, assisted by the agnidh, performed the second function. One hymn also shows that the rituals even at this time were initiated with the adhvaryu requesting the hotr permission to begin. In the late Mandala 10 (10.141.3), a brahman priest (associated with the Atharva Veda) was known and worshipped along with various deities, Soma, and the king. Some verses in Mandala 4 also refer to the brahman.
The purohita was different from the sacrificial priests but references in the Rig indicate that initially the purohita and the hotr performed the same functions. In two passages, the divine hotrs of the Apri hymns are also referred to as purohitas. From the priestly families described, it would seem that priesthood was usually hereditary. The different priestly families may once have had different rituals but gradually they became formalized. One passage refers to the ceremony of choosing and formally inviting the priests.
The Rig Veda also refers to several sacrifices. Items connected with sacrifices are revered, and these include the yupa or sacrificial post, barhis or sacrificial grass, and dvaro devih or the divine doors said to lead to the sacrificial area. There are several anuvakya or verses to invite the gods to the sacrifice. There are also hymns, which refer to the agnishtoma, ashvamedha, Soma, and other sacrifices. The wedding and funeral hymns of the Rig Veda form part of grihya rituals.
The fire is kindled by friction and only one altar is referred to but the fire from this is placed at three sites, corresponding to the three later fires. Only the garhapatya (domestic fire) is named, but the Vaishvanar and Narashamsa (or kravya-vahana) could be the precursors of the ahavaniya (sacrificial fire for the devas) and dakshina (sacrificial fire for the pitris and others, later used in rituals). Barhis were gathered from the east and spread on the sacrificial ground for the gods to sit on. Sacred fire wood (samidh) was placed in the fire and offerings were made three times a day. Some verses (3.27, 5.28) must have been used from the beginning at the time of lighting the fire. Offerings to the fire consisted of milk, butter, grain, barley, or wheat cakes, and at times meat, including that of the cow, bull, goat, sheep, or horse. Honey was also offered. Sruc and darvi were used to pour ghi on the fire. Grahas or special cups were used for the offerings.
The Rig also knows the process of heating the milk in a pot, which later became part of the pravargya (hot milk) ceremony, and the conclusion of the ritual with offering a cake made of grain to Agni Svishtakrit. The ten Apri hymns were probably from the beginning used as yajya (invocatory) verses in the animal sacrifice. One hymn in Mandala 3 (3.8) is meant for preparing the yupa (sacrificial post) for the sacrifice. The ashvamedha was a major ceremony even in the Rig, with separate hymns for its various stages.
The Soma sacrifice was, however, the most important. Its essentials were known in the Rig Veda. The three savanas or pressings (morning, midday, evening) are referred to. The gayatri, trishtubh, and jagati metres are used in the three savanas. The evening pressing is especially for the Ribhus, though Indra has a share in it; the afternoon for Indra, along with the Maruts. The morning savana is for several deities including Indra. The Soma was usually pounded with adri (pressing stones) to extract the juice, then mixed with water in the kosha (tub or vat), then poured into two chamus (bowls), where it was mixed with milk and poured into the kalasha (vessel), ready for the sacrifice. The sautramani sacrifice seems to be known though it is not named.
The Rig Veda refers to several words used in chanting: rik, girah, uktha, shamsa, stuti,
stoma, sama, and others. These have related meanings (see above).
ATHARVA VEDA
The Atharva Veda originally seems to have been a separate text, not a part of the three Vedas, which were grouped together. Later verses and hymns were added, which brought it in line with the other three texts. This was done perhaps to incorporate different groups into the whole sacrificial system. In its later sections, the Atharva repeats, with some variations, many of the marital, funeral, and sacrificial hymns of the Rig, though it has other magical formulas and spells. Its Kuntapa hymns (20.127–136) form part of the sacrificial ritual.
SAMA VEDA
The Sama Veda takes most of its hymns from the Rig Veda. However, these are arranged differently, specially for the performance of the sacrifice, particularly Soma sacrifices.
YAJUR VEDA
The Yajur is the most important of the four Samhitas in the sacrificial ritual. It has been called ‘the prayer book’ of the Vedas, as it provides the prayers to be recited with the sacrifices. The prayers and sacrificial formulas have both verses and prose passages but even the latter is sometimes rhythmic and poetic. The verses are known as rik, the prose as yaju, from which the text gets its name.
Most of the verses occur in the Rig Veda but are not quite the same; they are modified to suit the sacrifices. Single verses from the Rig are mostly used, entire hymns are rare.