by Roshen Dalal
The later texts, the Rigvidhana and the Kaushika Sutra, perhaps of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, elucidate some aspects of medicine mentioned in the Samhitas. The Kaushika Sutra (25–36) has a bhaishajya (medical section), which classifies the spells and charms.
SPIRITUAL HEALING
The magic songs and magic rites of the Atharva are said, in the Kaushika Sutra, to form the oldest system of medical science. Though Ayurveda is a scientific system that is increasingly gaining ground, spiritual healing systems such as reiki and pranic healing proliferate today, both in India and other parts of the world. Belief in disease being caused by negative thoughts of others, or by tantric practices, is still widespread in India. Amulets are still used for protection. Pujas are often conducted in the hope of restoring the health of loved ones. Thus, the ancient ideas cited in the Atharva have not gone out of circulation, and are still relevant today.
DISEASES
Many diseases are described in the Vedas. The major ones are described here.
Yakshma
A term in the Rig, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas, yakshma indicates ‘disease’. In later texts, yakshma is a term for consumption but, in the Samhitas, it is not used in such a specific way. For instance, the Vajasaneyi Samhita refers to 100 kinds of yakshma (12.97). The Kathaka Samhita (17.11) contains the term a-yakshma indicating ‘free from disease’. In addition, in the Yajur Veda Samhitas, raja-yakshma (royal yakshma) and papa-yakshma (evil yakshma) are referred to. The latter probably indicates a serious disease. Ajnatayakshma or ‘unknown sickness’ is mentioned in the Rig Veda, Atharva Veda, and Kathaka Samhita in connection with raja-yakshma. Yakshma is also identified with a demon or demonic force.
Yakshma occurred in both human adults and children, and in cattle, causing pain, fever, and debility. In one passage, it is said to be caused by sin (enas) and to have been sent by the gods. Among the gods prayed to for its prevention and cure were Agni, the Adityas, Vayu, and Savitr. The healing ointment (anjana) and amulets of wood from the varana tree, and of shatavara were used. The gugguli plant was burnt and its fumes were helpful. Certain powerful spells were used, along with herbs such as kushtha, chipudru, and arundhati. The Rigvidhana and Kaushika Sutra recommend sprinkling water and ghi on the patient, along with other rituals. A chant from the Atharva Veda on yakshma is given here:
A spell to banish yakshma
From both nostrils, from both eyes, from both ears, and from your chin,
From your brain and tongue I root out yakshma, seated in your head.
From the neck and from the nape, from dorsal vertebrae and spine.
From arms and shoulder blades I root out yakshma seated in your arms.
From your heart and from your lungs, from your gall bladder and your sides,
From kidneys, spleen and liver, yakshma we eradicate.
From bowels and intestines, from the rectum and the belly, I
Extirpate your yakshma, from flanks, navel and mesentery.
From your thighs and from your knees, heels and the fore-parts of your feet.
From your loins and hips I draw out yakshma.
From your marrows and your bones, from your tendons and veins
I banish yakshma, from your hands, your fingers, and your nails.
In every member, every hair, in every joint wherein it lies,
We with the exorcising spell of Kashyapa drive far away yakshma settled in your skin.
(Atharva Veda 2.33; based on the translation by R.T.H. Griffith in
The Hymns of the Atharva Veda)
Jayenya
Jayenya or jayanya is mentioned in the Atharva Veda and in the Taittiriya Samhita, as some kind of disease; in one passage in the Atharva, it is mentioned with jaundice and pain in limbs. If these are its symptoms, it could be some kind of liver disease. It has also been mentioned with yakshma and with apachit (‘skin sores’). Like yakshma, it pervades the whole body. It also leads to a swollen belly. It is said to have two types: akshita and sukshita. Scholars have interpreted the disease in different ways. Sayana feels it is an inherited or venereal disease. According to the American philologist and Sanskrit scholar Maurice Bloomfield, based on references in the Kaushika Sutra, it must be syphilis. Several scholars support this. It has also been interpreted as gout, though this seems unlikely. Prayers and anjana or ointment were used to cure it.
Takman
Takman, or fever, has several hymns related to it in the Atharva. The term takman for fever is used only in this text. Takman had several different varieties. Some of the fevers described are clearly malarial, while others are associated with rashes. Extracts of a prayer against takman, which indicates its different types, is given below. This is a prayer that may have been recited by a physician to rid everyone of all kinds of fever that affected people throughout the year.
May Agni drive the takman away from here, may Soma, the press-stone, and Varuna, of tried skill; may the altar, the straw (upon the altar), and the brightly flaming faggots (drive him away)! Away to naught shall go the hateful powers!
You that makes all men sallow, inflaming them like a searing fire, even now O takman, you will become void of strength: do now go away down, aye, into the depths! The takman that is spotted, covered with spots, like reddish sediment, him you, (O plant) of unremitting potency, drive away down below!
The prayer continues, requesting takman to go to the far-off northern countries, the land of the Mujavants, Mahavrishas, and Balhikas. The last few verses are:
10. When you, being cold, and then again deliriously hot, accompanied by cough, did cause the (sufferer) to shake, then O takman, your missiles were terrible: from these surely exempt us!
11. By no means ally yourself with balasa, cough and spasm! From there do not return here again: that O takman, do I ask of you!
13. O takman, along with your brother balasa, along with your sister cough, along with your cousin paman (itch), go to yonder foreign folk!
14. Destroy the takman that returns on (each) third day, the one that intermits (each) third day, the one that continues without intermission, and the autumnal one; destroy the cold takman, the hot, him that comes in summer, and him that arrives in the rainy season!
15. To the Gandharis, the Mujavants, the Angas and the Magadhas, we deliver over the takman, like a servant, like a treasure!
(Atharva Veda 5.22; based on the translation by M. Bloomfield in
The Hymns of the Atharva Veda)
There are several other hymns regarding takman in the Atharva. Takman is associated with Agni, as it is burning hot. Lightning too is prayed to, as its flashes are associated with fever. One verse asks takman to pass into a frog, which is known to be cool and moist. The kushtha plant is prayed to, to drive away takman, and must have been used as a practical remedy for fever. An amulet from the jangida tree is also cited as being used. Takman was also known as hrudu; this is a word applied to takman but its meaning is not clear. According to Weber, it could mean ‘cramp’ but there are also other interpretations, such as ‘greenish-yellow’ or ‘gold’. Perhaps this indicates a pallor or change in complexion.
The Kaushika Sutra actually states that a frog should be tied to the patient. A frog was also used in healing rituals for fever in early Europe. The Kaushika also states that the kushtha plant was crushed, mixed with fresh butter, and rubbed on the patient. In later Ayurveda, the kushtha root is used to counter cough, and fever, and for fumigation.
Some ailments associated with takman in the Atharva Veda are kasha (cough); paman, a skin disease, which could be an itch, eruptions, or scabs that occur with fever; prishtyamaya, a pain in the sides or ribs; and asharika, possibly the pain in limbs that accompanies fever.
Balasa
Balasa is mentioned in the Vajasaneyi Samhita and also several times in the Atharva and occasionally later. The commentators Mahidhara and Sayana interpret it as consumption; it is said to be a kind of yakshma, because of which bones and joints fall apart; and can be caused by love, or aversion, and the heart; sim
ilar statements are made in later Ayurvedic texts. It causes lumps in the armpits, suggesting a disease associated with the lymph glands. Swellings and abscesses are also associated with it. It is called the ‘brother’ of takman. However, it has also been interpreted as dropsy, or a sore or swelling that accompanies a fever caused by dropsy. The salve or ointment (anjana) from Trikakud, a mountain, and jangida plants are used in its cure, as well as chipudru, which may be palasha.
In one hymn in the Atharva, balasa is described as an internal disease, which crumbles the bones, and joints. There is a suggestion that it is removed through surgery: ‘the balasa of him who is afflicted with balasa do I remove, as one gelds a lusty animal. Its connection do I cut off as the root of a cucumber [gourd]’ (6.14.2). V.W. Karambelkar, an Ayurvedic physician, thought it was a skin disease as it was related to kilasha (leucoderma). However, the various references suggest that it could be cancer, which was known to exist in the ancient world. Two prayers against balasa (both based on the translation by R.T.H. Griffith) are given below:
Remove all balasa that lurks within the members and the joints,
The firmly settled heart disease that racks the bones and rends the limbs.
From the balasa victim I pluck balasa as ‘twere a severed part.
I cut the bond that fetters him, even as a root of cucumber.
Begone, balasa, hence away, like a young foal that runs at speed.
Then, not pernicious to our men, flee, yearly visitant like grass!
(Atharva 6.14)
Of abscess, of the red balasa, of inflammation. O plant,
Of penetrating pain, you herb, let not a particle remain.
Those two withdrawn testicles, balasa! which stand closely hidden in your armpits
I know the balm for that disease: the magic cure is chipudru.
We draw from you piercing pain that penetrates and racks your limbs,
That pierces ears, that pierces eyes, the abscess, and the heart’s disease.
Downward and far away from you we banish that unknown yakshma.
(Atharva 6.127)
Jaundice
Hariman mentioned in the Rig Veda, Atharva Veda, and elsewhere indicates yellowness in a disease, and that is clearly jaundice. A charm to banish jaundice is given below:
A charm against jaundice and heart disease
As the sun rises, let your heart disease (hridyota) and yellowness depart.
We compass and surround you with the colour of a red bull.
With red tints we surround you, so that you may live a long life;
So that this man be free from harm, and cast his yellow tint away.
Devatyas that are red of hue, and the reddish-coloured cattle,
Each several form, each several force—with these we surround you.
To parrots and to ropanakas (thrush), and to haridravas (yellow wagtail) we transfer your sickly
yellowness;
Now in the yellow-coloured birds we lay this yellowness of thine.
(Atharva Veda 1.22; based on the translations by
R.T.H. Griffith and M. Bloomfield)
Heart disease
Hridroga or heart disease is mentioned in the Rig Veda. It seems to be the same as the hridayamaya and hridyota cited in the Atharva. However, it is not clear why jaundice and heart disease are mentioned together (see above).
Kshetriya
Kshetriya is mentioned in the Yajur Veda and several times in the Atharva Veda as well as in the Taittiriya Brahmana. Kshetriya seems to be an internal disease with multiple symptoms. It is associated with yakshma, and with seizure (grahi) and evil spirits. References suggest that it was either inherited or caused by eating or drinking something. Apart from spells and prayers, barley, sesame, apamarga (a plant) and deer horn were used in its cure. Tying of an amulet, either filled with herbs or fashioned from antelope horn, and sprinkling of water were among methods referred to in later texts. According to Sayana, it is some kind of an inherited disease, though Bloomfield and others think it may be scrofula or syphilis. Karambelkar, after an extensive analysis of the term in later texts, feels it is caused by grass poisoning.
The term comes from kshetra, field, and the hymn below indicates it had some relationship with fields and crops.
Hymn to kshetriya
Twin stars of happy omen, named releasers, have gone up.
May they loosen, of kshetriya, the uppermost and lowest bond.
Vanish this night, extinct in dawn! Let those who weave their spells depart.
So let the kshetriya-destroying plant remove kshetriya.
With straw of barley tawny-brown in colour with its silvery ears,
with stalk and stem of sesamum—
So let the kshetriya-destroying plant remove kshetriya.
Let homage to your ploughs be paid, our homage to the pole and yokes.
So let the kshetriya-destroying plant remove kshetriya.
Homage to men with blinking eyes, homage to those who hear
and act! To the Field’s Lord (Kshetrasyapati) be homage paid.
So let the kshetriya-destroying plant remove kshetriya.
(Atharva 2.8; based on the translation by R.T.H. Griffith)
Rapas
Rapas is mentioned in the Rig and the Atharva, and seems to be a term for a disease, though it has also been translated as ‘wound’. The disease attacked the foot and joints, particularly knees and ankles. A crawling creature known as ajakava was said to live under the skin and cause this. Alternatively, it was caused by polluted water or by a creature living in water. It was associated with yakshma and jaundice. Barley was used in its cure, possibly as a poultice. Zyst suggests it was dracunculiases or guinea-worm disease.
A hymn against rapas
O Mitra-Varuna, guard and protect me here: let not that come to me which nests within and swells.
I drive afar the ajakava hateful to the sight: let not the winding worm touch me and wound my foot (or cause foot-rapas).
Eruption that appears upon the twofold joints, and that which overspreads the ankles and the knees,
May the refulgent Agni banish far away; let not the winding worm touch me and wound my foot.
The poison that is formed upon the salmali, that which is found in streams, that which the plants produce,
All this may all the gods banish and drive away: let not the winding worm touch me and wound my foot.
The steep declivities, the valleys, and the heights, the channels full of water, and the waterless— May those who swell with water, gracious goddesses, never afflict us with the shipada disease,
may all the rivers keep us free from shimida.
(Rig Veda 7.50; based on the translation by R.T.H. Griffith in The Hymns of the Rig Veda)
Eye Diseases
Among the eye diseases mentioned in the Atharva Veda are alaji and dushika. In later texts, alaji is a discharge from the eye while dushika is a disease connected with rheum of the eyes. Alaji has also been interpreted as an abscess or boil.
Malnutrition
Amiva in the Rig Veda (10.162) is a disease personified as a demonic being who kills the unborn child. In the Atharva, amiva is a disease associated with poverty (amati), hunger, and malnutrition. It may have been a disease like anaemia, caused by malnutrition. It was treated with prayers, herbs, and amulets.
Anaemia, Blood Flow
Vilohita is mentioned as a disease and literally means ‘flow of blood’. It has been interpreted as anaemia, nosebleed, or ‘decomposition of blood’.
Swellings and Skin Disorders
Several terms in the Atharva Veda refer to swellings and skin disorders. The term apachit is mentioned several times; Bloomfield believes it refers to scrofulous swellings while according to Zyst, it is a rash with pustules. Upachit is a term in the Vajasaneyi Samhita, which Roth believes means ‘swelling’, while Bloomfield thinks it is a variant of apachit. Galunta is a term that probably also means ‘swelling’; graivya seems to denote tumours on the neck; glau,
also mentioned in the Vajasaneyi Samhita and Aitareya Brahmana, is a symptom of a disease, and possibly refers to a boil. Kilasha is discolouration of the skin or leucoderma.
Hair Loss
Hair loss is mentioned in the Atharva Veda. There are herbs, charms, and prayers to prevent hair loss and have abundant, long, and healthy hair.
Stomach
Some diseases are related to the stomach. Apva is mentioned both in the Rig Veda and in the Atharva. In the Rig, it is located in the stomach and is said to confuse the mind, seize the limbs, and burn the heart. Yaska suggested it was a disease, or that it was fear. It is thought to be dysentery or diarrhoea, perhaps that induced by fear.
Asrava
Mentioned several times in the Atharva, it is literally ‘discharge’; the context indicates a disease. Bloomfield feels it is diarrhoea; others suggest painful urination, unhealed wounds, diabetes, or sickness and cold. Vishuchika, mentioned in the Vajasaneyi Samhita, other Yajur Samhitas and Shatapatha Brahmana, is a disease caused by drinking too much Soma; it seems to mean dysentery or, literally, ‘evacuations in both directions’. Vishthavrajin is referred to in the Shatapatha Brahmana; based on the Kathaka recension, Julius Eggeling, Sanskritist and translator of this Brahmana, suggests that it is a disease and means ‘one afflicted by dysentery’ but others disagree.
Urine Retention and Constipation
The converse of diarrhoea and dysentery was urine retention and constipation. Reference to the reed in the hymn below suggests the use of a catheter-like object. Later commentaries indicate treatments with herbs and by physically opening the bladder and administering an enema.