by Roshen Dalal
There are some who challenge the entire exercise of attempting to correlate literary texts with archaeological cultures, and believe that it cannot have any validity. And yet, despite the pitfalls, it is an attempt that needs to be made, as archaeology can best provide a date and context.
Finally, I would like to say that the suggestions made in this chapter are what seemed to be the most logical, based on existing evidence and theories. It has not been possible to go into every single theory in detail but the main theories have been discussed in the course of this book. Given the limited nature of the Rig Veda, and the still undeciphered Harappan script, no final conclusions are possible.
It would also be useful if studies ceased to focus on a specific time period and went into the larger question of migration into the subcontinent beginning with Palaeolithic times. To arrive at a better understanding of this problem, it is not just the Indo-Aryan languages but all the languages of the subcontinent that need to be understood and analysed in terms of their origin and distribution from the earliest times. In this process, it should be kept in mind that language and genetics are not necessarily related.
Regardless of the time frame and historicity of the Vedas, their magnificent poetry and imagery can be appreciated by everyone.
Appendix I
A list of the hymns in the Rig Veda is given here:
MANDALA 1
Sukta Main deity/deities Rishi composer
1 Agni Madhuchhanda Vaishvamitra
2 Vayu Madhuchhanda Vaishvamitra
3 Ashvins Madhuchhanda Vaishvamitra
4-10 Indra Madhuchhanda Vaishvamitra
11 Indra Jeta Madhuchhandas
12 Agni Medhatithi Kanva
13 Agni and others Medhatithi Kanva
14 All or many gods Medhatithi Kanva
15 Ritus, along with various deities Medhatithi Kanva
16 Indra Medhatithi Kanva
17 Indra-Varuna Medhatithi Kanva
18 Brahmanaspati and others Medhatithi Kanva
19 Agni and Maruts Medhatithi Kanva
20 Ribhus Medhatithi Kanva
21 Indra-Agni Medhatithi Kanva
22 Ashvins and others Medhatithi Kanva
23 Vayu, Indra-Vayu and others Medhatithi Kanva
24 Ka, Agni, Savitr, Varuna and others Shunahshepa Ajigarti, later Devarata Vaishvamitra
25 Varuna Shunahshepa Ajigarti
26 Agni Shunahshepa Ajigarti
27 Agni, other devatas Shunahshepa Ajigarti
28 Indra and others Shunahshepa Ajigarti
29 Indra Shunahshepa Ajigarti
30 Indra and others Shunahshepa Ajigarti
31 Agni Hiranyastupa Angirasa
32-33 Indra Hiranyastupa Angirasa
34 Ashvins Hiranyastupa Angirasa
35 Savitr and others Hiranyastupa Angirasa
36 Agni, yupa (sacrificial post) Kanva Ghaura
37-39 Maruts Kanva Ghaura
40 Brahmanaspati Kanva Ghaura
41 Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman Kanva Ghaura
42 Pushan Kanva Ghaura
43 Rudra, Mitra-Varuna, Soma Kanva Ghaura
44 Agni, Ashvins, Usha Praskanva Kanva
45 Agni and others Praskanva Kanva
46-47 Ashvins Praskanva Kanva
48-49 Usha Praskanva Kanva
50 Surya Praskanva Kanva
51-57 Indra Savya Angirasa
58-60 Agni Nodha Gautama
61-63 Indra Nodha Gautama
64 Maruts Nodha Gautama
65-73 Agni Parashara Shaktya
74-79 Agni Gotama Rahugana
80-84 Indra Gotama Rahugana
85-88 Maruts Gotama Rahugana
89-90 All or many gods (Vishvedevas) Gotama Rahugana
91 Soma Gotama Rahugana
92 Usha, Ashvins Gotama Rahugana
93 Agni-Soma Gotama Rahugana
94 Agni and others Kutsa Angirasa
95-98 Agni Kutsa Angirasa
99 Agni Kashyapa Maricha
100 Indra Varshagira, Rijashva, Ambarisha, Sahadeva, Bhayamana, Suradhasa
101-04 Indra Kutsa Angirasa
105 All or many gods (Vishvedevas) Kutsa Angirasa or Trita Aptya
106-07 All or many gods (Vishvedevas) Kutsa Angirasa
108-09 Indra-Agni Kutsa Angirasa
110-11 Ribhus Kutsa Angirasa
112 Ashvins Kutsa Angirasa
113 Usha, Ratri Kutsa Angirasa
114 Rudra Kutsa Angirasa
115 Surya Kutsa Angirasa
116-20 Ashvins Kakshivan Dairghatamas (Aushija)
121 Indra Kakshivan Dairghatamas
122 Many gods Kakshivan Dairghatamas
123-24 Usha Kakshivan Dairghatamas
125 Svanaya danastuti Kakshivan Dairghatamas
126 Svanaya Bhavyavya, Romasha Kakshivan Dairghatamas
127-28 Agni Paruchchhepa Daivodasi
129 Indra, Indu Paruchchhepa Daivodasi
130-33 Indra Paruchchhepa Daivodasi
134 Vayu Paruchchhepa Daivodasi
135 Vayu, Indra-Vayu Paruchchhepa Daivodasi
136 Mitra-Varuna, other gods Paruchchhepa Daivodasi
137 Mitra-Varuna Paruchchhepa Daivodasi
138 Pushan Paruchchhepa Daivodasi
139 Many gods Paruchchhepa Daivodasi
140-41 Agni Dirghatama Auchathya
142 Apri sukta Dirghatama Auchathya
143-50 Agni Dirghatama Auchathya
151 Mitra, Mitra-Varuna Dirghatama Auchathya
152-53 Mitra-Varuna Dirghatama Auchathya
154 Vishnu Dirghatama Auchathya
155 Vishnu, Indra-Vishnu Dirghatama Auchathya
156 Vishnu Dirghatama Auchathya
157-58 Ashvins Dirghatama Auchathya
159-60 Dyava-Prithivi Dirghatama Auchathya
161 Ribhus Dirghatama Auchathya
162-63 Ashva, the horse Dirghatama Auchathya
164 Many gods Dirghatama Auchathya
165 Maruts, Indra Indra, Maruts, Agastya Maitravaruni
166 Maruts Agastya Maitravaruni
167 Indra, Maruts Agastya Maitravaruni
168 Maruts Agastya Maitravaruni
169 Indra Agastya Maitravaruni
170 Indra Indra, Indra or Agastya, Agastya Maitravaruni
171-72 Maruts Agastya Maitravaruni
173-78 Indra Agastya Maitravaruni
179 Rati Lopamudra, Agastya Maitravaruni, Agastya Shishya Brahmachari
180-84 Ashvins Agastya Maitravaruni
185 Dyava-Prithivi Agastya Maitravaruni
186 Many gods Agastya Maitravaruni
187 Anna-deva (food) Agastya Maitravaruni
188 Agni and others Agastya Maitravaruni
189 Agni Agastya Maitravaruni
190 Brihaspati Agastya Maitravaruni
191 Aptrina-Surya (water, grass, sun)
(against poisonous creatures) Agastya Maitravaruni
MANDALA 2
Sukta Main deity/deities Rishi composer
1-2 Agni Gritsamada Bhargava Shaunaka (later Angirasa Shaunahotra; below listed as Gritsamada)
3 Apri sukta, various deities Gritsamada
4-7 Agni Somahuti Bhargava
8-10 Agni Gritsamada
11-22 Indra Gritsamada
23 Brihaspati Gritsamada
24 Brahmanaspati, Brihaspati, Indra-Brahmanaspati Gritsamada
25-26 Brahmanaspati Gritsamada
27 Adityas Gritsamada or Kurma Gartsamada
28 Varuna Gritsamada or Kurma Gartsamada
29 Vishvedevas (many gods) Gritsamada or Kurma Gartsamada
30 Indra and others Gritsamada
31 Vishvedevas (many gods) Gritsamada
32 Dyava-Prithivi and others Gritsamada
33 Rudra Gritsamada
34 Maruts Gritsamada
35 Apam Napat Gritsamada
36-37 Various gods Gritsamada
38 Savitr Gritsamada
39 Ashvins Gritsamada
40 Soma-Pushan, Aditi Gritsamada
41 Vayu, Indra-Vayu and others Gritsamada
42-43 Shakunta (Indra in form of Kapinjala) Gritsamada
MANDALA 3
Sukta Main deity/deities Rishi composer
1 Agni Vishvamitra
2-3 Vaishvanara Agni Vishvamitra Gathin
4 Apri sukta Vishvamitra Gathin
5-7 Agni Vishvamitra Gathin
8 Yupa, etc. Vishvamitra Gathin
9-11 Agni Vishvamitra Gathin
12 Indra-Agni Vishvamitra Gathin
13-14 Agni Rishabha Vaishvamitra
15-16 Agni Utkila Katya
17-18 Agni Kata Vaishvamitra
19 Agni Gathi Kaushika
20 Agni, others Gathi Kaushika
21 Agni Gathi Kaushika
22 Agni, Purishya Agniya Gathi Kaushika
23 Agni Devashrava, Devavata Bharata
24-25 Agni Vishvamitra Gathin
26 Vaishvanara Agni and others Vishvamitra Gathin, Atmaa
27 Agni, Ritus Vishvamitra Gathin
28 Agni Vishvamitra Gathin
29 Agni Vishvamitra Gathin
30 Indra Vishvamitra Gathin
31 Indra Vishvamitra Gathin or Kushika Aishirathi
32 Indra Vishvamitra Gathin
33 Rivers, others Vishvamitra Gathin, rivers (rishis)
34-35 Indra Vishvamitra Gathin
36 Indra Vishvamitra Gathin, Ghora Angirasa
37 Indra Vishvamitra Gathin
38 Indra Vishvamitra Gathin or Prajapati Vaishvamitra
39-52 Indra Vishvamitra Gathin
53 Indra, mountains, others Vishvamitra Gathin
54-56 Vishvedevas Prajapati Vaishvamitra or Prajapati Vachya
57 Vishvedevas Vishvamitra Gathin
58 Ashvins Vishvamitra Gathin
59 Mitra Vishvamitra Gathin
60 Ribhus, Indra Vishvamitra Gathin
61 Usha Vishvamitra Gathin
62 Indra and others Vishvamitra Gathin, Jamadagni
MANDALA 4
Sukta Main deity/deities Rishi composer
1 Agni, Agni-Varuna Vamadeva
2-3 Agni Vamadeva Gautama
4 Rakshoha Agni Vamadeva Gautama
5 Vaishvanara Agni Vamadeva Gautama
6-12 Agni Vamadeva Gautama
13-14 Agni (Lingokta devata) Vamadeva Gautama
15 Agni and others Vamadeva Gautama
16-17 Indra Vamadeva Gautama
18 Indra and others Vamadeva Gautama, Indra, Aditi
19-22 Indra Vamadeva Gautama
23 Indra and others Vamadeva Gautama
24-25 Indra Vamadeva Gautama
26-27 Indra, Shyena Vamadeva Gautama
28 Indra, Indra-Soma Vamadeva Gautama
29 Indra Vamadeva Gautama
30 Indra Vamadeva Gautama
31 Indra Vamadeva Gautama
32 Indra-Ashva Vamadeva Gautama
33-37 Ribhus Vamadeva Gautama
38 Dadhikra, Dyava-Prithivi Vamadeva Gautama
39 Dadhikra Vamadeva Gautama
40 Dadhikra, Surya Vamadeva Gautama
41 Indra-Varuna Vamadeva Gautama
42 Trasadasyu (atmastuti); Indra-Varuna Trasadasyu Paurukutsya
43-44 Ashvins Purumila Sauhotra, Ajamila Sauhotra
45 Ashvins Vamadeva Gautama
46-47 Indra-Vayu, Vayu Vamadeva Gautama
48 Vayu Vamadeva Gautama
49 Indra-Brihaspati Vamadeva Gautama
50 Brihaspati, Indra-Brihaspati Vamadeva Gautama
51-52 Usha Vamadeva Gautama
53-54 Savitr Vamadeva Gautama
55 Vishvedevas Vamadeva Gautama
56 Dyava-Prithivi Vamadeva Gautama
57 Kshetrapati, Shuna, Sira, Sita Vamadeva Gautama
58 Various deities, Ghrita Vamadeva Gautama
MANDALA 5
Sukta Main deity/deities Rishi composer
1 Agni Budha and Gavishthara Atreya
2 Agni Kumar Atreya, or Vrisha Jana (Jara) or both
3 Agni, Maruts, Rudra, Vishnu Vasushruta Atreya
4 Agni Vasushruta Atreya
5 Apri sukta Vasushruta Atreya
6 Agni Vasushruta Atreya
7-8 Agni Isha Atreya
9-10 Agni Gaya Atreya
11-14 Agni Sutambhara Atreya
15 Agni Dharana Angirasa
16-17 Agni Puru Atreya
18 Agni Mriktavaha Dvita Atreya
19 Agni Vavri Atreya
20 Agni Prayasvan Atrigana
21 Agni Sasa Atreya
22 Agni Vishvasama Atreya
23 Agni Dhyugna Vishvacharshani Atreya
24 Agni Bandhu, Subandhu, Shrutabandhu, Viprabandhu Gaupayana or Laupayana
25 Agni Vasuyu Atreya
26 Agni, other gods Vasuyu Atreya
27 Agni, Indra-Agni Trayaruna Traivrishna, Trasadasyu
Paurukutsya, Ashvamedha Bharata
or Atri Bhauma
28 Agni Vishvavara Atreyi
29 Indra, Ushana Gauriviti Shaktya
30 Indra, Rinanchaya (king) Babhru Atreya
31 Indra, Kutsa, Ushana Avasyu Atreya
32 Indra Gatu Atreya
33-34 Indra Samvarana Prajapatya
35-36 Indra Prabhuvasa Angirasa
37-39 Indra Atri Bhauma
40 Indra, Surya, Atri Atri Bhauma
41 Vishvedevas Atri Bhauma
42 Vishvedevas, Rudra Atri Bhauma
43 Vishvedevas Atri Bhauma
44 Vishvedevas Avatsara Kashyapa
45 Vishvedevas Sadaprina Atreya
46 Vishvedevas, Devapatnis Pratikshatra Atreya
47 Vishvedevas Pratiratha Atreya
48 Vishvedevas Pratibhanu Atreya
49 Vishvedevas Pratiprabha Atreya
50-51 Vishvedevas Svasti Atreya
52-59 Maruts Shyavashva Atreya
60 Maruts or Agni Maruts Shyavashva Atreya
61 Maruts, others Shyavashva Atreya
62 Mitra-Varuna Shrutavrita Atreya
63-64 Mitra-Varuna Archanana Atreya
65-66 Mitra-Varuna Ratahavya Atreya
67-68 Mitra-Varuna Yajata Atreya
69-70 Mitra-Varuna Aruchakri Atreya
71-72 Mitra-Varuna Bahuvrikta Atreya
73-74 Ashvins Paura Atreya
75 Ashvins Avasyu Atreya
76-77 Ashvins Atri Bhauma
78 Ashvins Saptavadhri Atreya
79-80 Usha Satyashrava Atreya
81-82 Savitr Shyavashva Atreya
83 Parjanya Atri Bhauma
84 Prithivi Atri Bhauma
85 Varuna Atri Bhauma
86 Indra-Agni Atri Bhauma
87 Maruts Evayamarut Atreya
MANDALA 6
Sukta Main deity/deities Rishi composer
1-6 Agni Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
7-9 Vaishvanara Agni Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
10-14 Agni Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
15 Agni Bharadvaja Barhaspatya or Vitahavya Angirasa
16 Agni Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
17-20 Indra Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
21 Indra, Vishvedevas Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
22-26 Indra Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
27 Indra, Abhyavarti Chayamana (danastuti) Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
28 Indra, cows Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
29-30 Indra Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
31-32 Indra Suhotra Bharadvaja
33-34 Indra Shunahotra Bharadvaja
35-36 Indra Nara Bharadvaja
37-43 Indra Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
44 Indra Shamyu Barhaspatya
45 Indra, Bributaksha Shamyu Barhaspatya
46 Indra Shamyu Barhaspatya
47 Indra and others Garga Bharadvaja
48 Agni and others Shamyu Barhaspatya
49-52 Vishvedevas Rijishva Bharadvaja
53-56 Pushan Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
57 Indra, Pushan Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
58 Pushan Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
59-60 Indra-Agni Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
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br /> 61 Sarasvati Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
62-63 Ashvins Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
64-65 Usha Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
66 Maruts Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
67 Mitra-Varuna Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
68 Indra-Varuna Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
69 Indra-Vishnu Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
70 Dyava-Prithivi Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
71 Savitr Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
72 Indra-Soma Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
73 Brihaspati Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
74 Soma-Rudra Bharadvaja Barhaspatya
75 Weapons of war Payu Bharadvaja
MANDALA 7
Sukta Main deity/deities Rishi composer
1 Agni Vasishtha Maitravaruni
2 Apri sukta Vasishtha Maitravaruni
3-4 Agni Vasishtha Maitravaruni
5-6 Vaishvanara Agni Vasishtha Maitravaruni
7-12 Agni Vasishtha Maitravaruni
13 Vaishvanara Agni Vasishtha Maitravaruni
14-17 Agni Vasishtha Maitravaruni
18 Indra, Sudasa Paijavana Vasishtha Maitravaruni
19-31 Indra Vasishtha Maitravaruni
32 Indra Vasishtha Maitravaruni, possibly with Shakti Vasishtha
33 Vasishtha Putragana, Vasishtha Vasishtha Maitravaruni, Vasishtha Putragana
34 Vishvedevas, Ahi, Ahirbudhnya Vasishtha Maitravaruni
35-37 Vishvedevas Vasishtha Maitravaruni
38 Savitr, Bhaga (1/2 verse), Vajin Vasishtha Maitravaruni
39-40 Vishvedevas Vasishtha Maitravaruni
41 Lingokta devata (Agni, Indra, Maitravaruna, Ashvins, Bhaga, Pushan, Brahmanaspati, Soma, Rudra, Usha) Vasishtha Maitravaruni
42-43 Vishvedevas Vasishtha Maitravaruni
44 Dadhikra, others Vasishtha Maitravaruni
45 Savitr Vasishtha Maitravaruni
46 Rudra Vasishtha Maitravaruni
47 Apah Vasishtha Maitravaruni
48 Ribhus, Vishvedevas Vasishtha Maitravaruni
49 Apah Vasishtha Maitravaruni
50 Mitra-Varuna, other gods, rivers Vasishtha Maitravaruni
51-52 Adityas Vasishtha Maitravaruni
53 Dyava-Prithivi Vasishtha Maitravaruni
54 Vastoshpati Vasishtha Maitravaruni
55 Vastoshpati, Indra Vasishtha Maitravaruni
56-58 Maruts Vasishtha Maitravaruni
59 Maruts, Rudra (Mrityu Vimochani) Vasishtha Maitravaruni