20. Fredrickson, Racism, p. 64.
21. D. Hume, Essays, Moral, Political and Literary (Indianapolis, 1987 ed.), pp. 208 fn, 629–30; Kidd, Forging the Races, pp. 93–94; Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, p. 30; J. Israel, Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution and Human Rights, 1750–1790 (Oxford, 2011), pp. 738–39.
22. C. Bolt, Victorian Attitudes to Race (London, 1971), p. 9; Stepan, Idea of Race, p. 29; Painter, White People, pp. 114–15; Israel, Democratic Enlightenment, pp. 250–53.
23. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, p. 33.
24. Quoted in E. C. Eze, ed., Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), p. 13; Fredrickson, Racism, p. 56.
25. S. Peabody, “There Are No Slaves in France”: The Political Culture of Race and Slavery in the Ancien Régime (New York, 1996), p. 66.
26. Hannaford, Race, pp. 202–13; Painter, White People, pp. 72–90.
27. J. H. St. J. de Crèvecoeur, Letters from an American Farmer (New York, 1981 ed.), p. 69; E. Foner, The Story of American Freedom (New York, 1998), p. 39.
28. T. Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1982 ed.), pp. 138–39; Chaplin, “Race,” p. 165.
29. Foner, American Freedom, p. 75; Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 80–81; J. H. Kettner, The Development of American Citizenship, 1608–1870 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1978), pp. 235–46; E. P. Hutchinson, Legislative History of American Immigration Policy, 1798–1865 (Philadelphia, 1981), pp. 405–33.
30. Painter, White People, pp. 64–68; Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, pp. 21–25.
31. Bolt, Victorian Attitudes to Race, p. 15; Biddiss, introduction to Images of Race, p. 15; Painter, White People, pp. 190–94; S. J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, rev. ed. (New York, 1996), pp. 105–41.
32. Bolt, Victorian Attitudes to Race, p. 4; Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, pp. 70–71; P. Stock, “ ‘Almost a Separate Race’: Racial Thought and the Idea of Europe in British Encyclopedias and Histories, 1771–1830,” Modern Intellectual History 8 (2011): 3–29; E. Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States Between the World Wars (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 3–4.
33. Bolt, Victorian Attitudes to Race, p. xi; Biddiss, introduction to Images of Race, pp. 11, 16; Painter, White People, pp. 213–14; Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, pp. 121–22; J. Darwin, After Tamerlane: The Global History of Empire Since 1405 (London, 2007), p. 348.
34. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, pp. 32–33.
35. Ibid., pp. 11, 17–20, 30; Biddiss, introduction to Images of Race, p. 15.
36. Kidd, Forging of Races, pp. 7–8; Painter, White People, pp. 195–98; Fredrickson, Racism, p. 57.
37. Painter, White People, pp. 195–98; Bolt, Victorian Attitudes to Race, pp. xii, 10, 23.
38. Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 8, 70–71; Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, pp. 36–41, 102.
39. D. Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, c. 1848–c. 1918 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 11–27.
40. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, pp. 54–55.
41. Barkan, Retreat of Scientific Racism, pp. 17–18; Biddiss, introduction to Images of Race, pp. 18–20.
42. R. Hyam, Understanding the British Empire (Cambridge, 2010), pp. 25–26, 161–68; Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage, p. 239; L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (2nd. ed., London, 2005), pp. 354–55.
43. Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage, pp. 252–53; Foner, American Freedom, p. 88.
44. Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage, pp. 238–39.
45. Foner, American Freedom, pp. 89, 98, 105–7.
46. M. Lake and H. Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men’s Countries and the International Challenge of Racial Equality (Cambridge, 2008), pp. 50–53, 59–60, 89–90; T. Koditschek, Liberalism, Imperialism, and the Historical Imagination: Nineteenth-Century Visions of a Greater Britain (Cambridge, 2011), pp. 240–50.
47. Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, pp. 11, 72–74, 95–113; J. Bryce, The Relations of the Advanced and the Backward Races of Mankind (Oxford, 1902), passim; D. Bell, The Idea of Greater Britain: Empire and the Future of World Order, 1860–1900 (Princeton, 2007), pp. 7–9; J. Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World-System, 1830–1970 (Cambridge, 2009), p. 147; P. Ziegler, Legacy: Cecil Rhodes, The Rhodes Trust and Rhodes Scholarships (London, 2008), pp. 13–14.
48. D. Gilmour, The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling (London, 2002), pp. 126–32; Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 107–8.
49. Foner, American Freedom, p. 186; Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, pp. 95–113; T. G. Dyer, Theodore Roosevelt and the Idea of Race (Baton Rouge, 1980), pp. 16–19, 70–80, 100–109.
50. Painter, White People, pp. 201–56, 289–308; Foner, American Freedom, p. 187; J. Stein, “Defining the Race, 1890–1930,” in W. Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (New York, 1989), pp. 70–80.
51. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, pp. 99–101, 120, 148–9, 165–66; Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 72–78.
52. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, pp. 105–10; Hannaford, Race, pp. 348–56; Painter, White People, pp. 311–16; Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 89–91.
53. B. Perkins, The Grand Rapprochement: England and the United States, 1895–1914 (New York, 1968); S. Anderson, Race and Rapprochement: Anglo-Saxonism and Anglo-American Relations, 1895–1904 (Madison, N.J., 1981); P. A. Kramer, “Empires, Exceptions, and Anglo-Saxons: Race and Rule Between the British and United States Empires,” Journal of American History 88 (2002): 1315–53; P. Clarke, “The English-Speaking Peoples Before Churchill,” Britain and the World 4 (2011): 199–231.
54. Ziegler, Legacy, pp. 8, 13, 17.
55. J. P. Greene, “Introduction: Empire and Liberty,” in Greene, ed., Exclusionary Empire: English Liberty Overseas, 1600–1900 (Cambridge, 2010), p. 24.
56. Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 9–10.
57. Hyam, Understanding the British Empire, p. 30.
58. Ibid., p. 223.
59. G. M. Fredrickson, White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and South African History (Oxford, 1981), pp. 239–44; Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, pp. 155, 222–37; Hyam, Understanding the British Empire, pp. 351, 359 n. 24; C. Saunders, “The Expansion of British Liberties: The South African Case,” in Greene, Exclusionary Empire, p. 285.
60. Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, pp. 30–45; Darwin, Empire Project, pp. 162–64, 167.
61. Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, pp. 137–65, 178–79, 315; J. Stenhouse and B. Moloughney, “ ‘Drug-Besotted Sin-Begotten Sons of Filth’; New Zealanders and the Oriental Other,” New Zealand Journal of History 33 (1999): 43–64.
62. Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, pp. 139–40.
63. Ibid., pp. 114–19; M. K. Gandhi, An Autobiography (London, 2001 ed.), pp. 114, 160.
64. Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 102, 112–13; H. Bley, South-West Africa Under German Rule, 1894–1914 (Evanston, Ill., 1971), pp. 163–64, 207, 212–13.
65. Foner, American Freedom, pp. 131–33; C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 (Baton Rouge, 1951); Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York, 3rd ed., 1974); M. Perman, Struggle for Mastery: Disenfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2001).
66. Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 82–83.
67. J. Williamson, The Crucible of Race: Black-White Relations in the American South Since Emancipation (New York, 1984), pp. 111–223; L. F. Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York, 1998), pp. 117–18, 185.
68. Fredrickson, Racism, p. 82, 110–11; Foner, American Freedom, p. 131.
69. Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, pp. 129–31; Foner, American Freedom, pp. 131, 189; Painter, White People, pp. 209–11, 234, 238, 322–23.
70. S. C. Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation”: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 (New Haven, 1982), p. 188; Hyam, Understanding the British Empire, p. 127; Lake and Reynolds
, Global Colour Line, pp. 106–13; Foner, American Freedom, pp. 131–32, 137, 188–89.
71. Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 77–88; P. Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria (Cambridge, Mass., 1988), pp. 83–119.
72. R. Overy, The Dictators: Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Russia (London, 2004), p. 549.
73. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, pp. 99–100, 110–11, 204–5; M. Burleigh and W. Wippermann, The Racial State: Germany, 1933–1945 (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 23–43; R. J. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich (New York, 2005), pp. 450–51.
74. Overy, The Dictators, p. 552.
75. Ibid., pp. 570–71.
76. Burleigh and Wippermann, Racial State, p. 49.
77. R. J. Evans, The Third Reich at War (New York, 2009), pp. 28–29.
78. Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 118–22.
79. Overy, The Dictators, pp. 583–84; R. J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power (New York, 2006), pp. 506–79.
80. Burleigh and Wippermann, Racial State, p. 102; Overy, The Dictators, pp. 552–53; Evans, Third Reich at War, pp. 216–318.
81. Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, pp. 327–30; Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 116–17.
82. Fredrickson, Racism, p. 133.
83. Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, p. 354; Fredrickson, Racism, p. 124.
84. W. H. Vatcher, White Laager: The Rise of Afrikaner Nationalism (New York, 1965), p. 160.
85. Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 135–36; G. M. Carter, The Politics of Inequality: South Africa Since 1948 (London, 1958), p. 370; T. D. Moodie, The Rise of Afrikanerdom: Power, Apartheid and the Afrikaner Civil Religion (Berkeley, 1975), p. 265.
86. For differing views on Smuts and race see Hyam, Understanding the British Empire, pp. 342–60; S. Marks, “White Masculinity: Smuts, Race and the South African War,” Proceedings of the British Academy 111 (2001): 199–223; N. Garson, “Smuts and the Idea of Race,” South African Historical Journal 57 (2007): 153–78; S. Dubow, “Smuts, the United Nations, and the Rhetoric of Race and Rights,” Journal of Contemporary History 43 (2008): 45–73.
87. Hyam, Understanding the British Empire, pp. 353–55.
88. Darwin, Empire Project, pp. 147, 177; Ziegler, Legacy, pp. 88–90; Painter, White People, p. 317.
89. D. Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire (London, 2001).
90. M. Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, N.Y., 1989), pp. 199–210, 271–75; Darwin, Empire Project, p. 168; Hyam, Understanding the British Empire, pp. 31, 222–29; Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, pp. 123–24, 131.
91. Darwin, Empire Project, p. 178.
92. M. Vaughan, “Liminal,” London Review of Books, March 23, 2006, pp. 15–16, taking issue with A. Memmi, The Coloniser and the Colonised (London, 2003).
93. Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 108–9; Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, pp. 51–57; Bolt, Victorian Attitudes to Race, p. 22; M. Banton, Racial Theories (2nd ed., Cambridge, 1998), pp. 73–74; M. D. Biddiss, Father of Racist Ideology: The Social and Political Thought of Count Gobineau (London, 1970), pp. 253–54.
94. Foner, American Freedom, pp. 173–74; Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 102–3, 116.
95. Foner, American Freedom, pp. 78–79.
96. Overy, The Dictators, p. 547.
97. G. H. Herb, Under the Map of Germany: Nationalism and Propaganda, 1918–1945 (London, 1997), pp. 136–39.
98. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, pp. 91–93; Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 124–25.
99. S. Harries, Nikolaus Pevsner: The Life (London, 2011), pp. 38–40, 47, 125.
100. Overy, The Dictators, p. 573; Herb, Under the Map of Germany, pp. 132–40.
101. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, pp. 141–42; Overy, The Dictators, pp. 576–78; Evans, Third Reich in Power, p. 545.
102. Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 132, 136–37.
103. Hyam, Understanding the British Empire, pp. 353–54.
104. Kidd, Forging of Races, p. 275.
105. Painter, White People, pp. 228–32, 237–38.
106. Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 158–63.
107. Stepan, Idea of Race, pp. 140–69; Barkan, Retreat of Scientific Racism, pp. 279–340.
108. Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, p. 350; Painter, White People, p. 329; emphasis in original.
109. Hannaford, Race, pp. 371–72, 374–76; Barkan, Retreat of Scientific Racism, pp. 76–95; Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 163–64; J. Barzun, Race: A Study in Superstition, rev. ed. (New York, 1965), pp. 15–16.
110. A. Montagu, Race, Science and Humanity (Princeton, 1963 ed.), pp. 1–2, 8.
111. Foner, American Freedom, p. 135; J. White, Black Leadership in America: From Booker T. Washington to Jesse Jackson (2nd ed., London, 1990), pp. 29–30.
112. R. J. Terchek, “Conflict and Nonviolence,” in J. M. Brown and A. Parel, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi (Cambridge, 2011), p. 118; J. M. Brown, introduction to M. Gandhi, The Essential Writings (Oxford, 2008), pp. xxvii–xxviii.
113. J. M. Brown, “Gandhi and Human Rights: In Search of True Humanity,” in A. J. Parel, ed., Gandhi, Freedom and Self-Rule (Lanham, Md., 2000), pp. 87–94.
114. Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, pp. 1–2, 75–94.
115. Darwin, After Tamerlane, p. 349.
116. White, Black Leadership, pp. 51–65; J. Parker and R. Rathbone, African History: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford, 2007), p. 36.
117. Kidd, Forging of Races, pp. 256–57; Foner, American Freedom, pp. 174–75; White, Black Leadership, pp. 79, 84.
118. Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, pp. 9–10, 104, 145–49, 155, 168–78.
119. Ibid., pp. 273–78.
120. Ibid., pp. 11, 284–305, 320–24, 339–40.
121. M. D. Biddiss, “The Universal Races Congress of 1911,” Race 13 (1971): 37–46; R. J. Holton, “Cosmopolitanism or Cosmopolitanisms? The Universal Races Congress of 1911,” Global Networks 2 (2002): 153–70; Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, pp. 251–62.
122. White, Black Leadership, pp. 38–42.
123. J. W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York, 1986), pp. 3–14; Foner, American Freedom, p. 223; Painter, White People, pp. 332–42.
124. Barkan, Retreat of Scientific Racism, pp. 279–85; Foner, American Freedom, p. 239; Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 165–67.
125. A. Sampson, Mandela: The Authorised Biography (London, 1999), p. 39.
126. Foner, American Freedom, pp. 240–42; C. Thorne, “Racial Aspects of the Far Eastern War of 1941–1945,” Proceedings of the British Academy 66 (1980): 360–77.
127. Lake and Reynolds, Global Colour Line, p. 351; Barkan, Retreat of Scientific Racism, pp. 341–42; K. Malik, Man, Beast and Zombie: What Science Can and Cannot Tell Us About Human Nature (London, 2000), pp. 16, 134–35.
128. Hannaford, Race, pp. 385–86; UNESCO, Conference for the Establishment of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Paris, 1945), p. 93; L. Kuper, ed., Race, Science and Society (London, 1975), pp. 343–53; M. Brittain, “Race, Racism and Antiracism: UNESCO and the Politics of Presenting Science to the Postwar Public,” American Historical Review 112 (2007): 1386–1413.
129. Foner, American Freedom, pp. 280–82.
130. Sampson, Mandela, pp. 402,
131. D. Reynolds, One World Divisible: A Global History Since 1945 (New York, 2000), p. 201.
132. White, Black Leadership, pp. 150–66; Kidd, Forging of Races, pp. 268–70; Foner, American Freedom, pp. 283–84; Painter, White People, pp. 374–77; Sampson, Mandela, pp. 140–59; M. Marable, Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (New York, 2011), pp. 167–79, 198–203, 480–85.
133. Reynolds, One World Divisible, pp. 213–19, 598–608.
134. White, Black Leadership, p. 141; P. Stothard and N. Danziger, “What Condi Did First,” Times Magazine (London), April 1, 2006, p. 19.
135. C. West, quoted in J. Rajchman, ed., The Identity
in Question (New York, 1995), p. 15; R. McKnight, “Confessions of a Wannabe Negro,” in G. Early, ed., Lure and Loathing: Essays on Race, Identity, and the Ambivalence of Assimilation (New York, 1993), p. 112; P. Alexander and R. Halpern, eds., Racialising Class, Classifying Race: Labour and Difference in Britain, the USA and Africa (Basingstoke, 2000).
136. For surveys of this literature see F. B. Livingstone, “On the Non-Existence of Human Races,” Current Anthropology 3 (1962): 279–81; G. A. Harrison, “The Race Concept in Human Biology,” Journal of Biosocial Science, supplement no. 1 (1969): 129–42.
137. Foner, American Freedom, p. 279; A. E. Meier, E. Rudwick, and F. L. Broderick, eds., Black Protest Thought in the Twentieth Century (2nd ed., New York, 1971), pp. 49–50; D. Wells, ed., We Have a Dream: African-American Visions of Freedom (New York, 1993), pp. 168–72.
138. Sampson, Mandela, pp. 27, 47, 79, 193, 493, 520, 582–85; K. Asmal, D. Chichester, and W. James, eds., Nelson Mandela: In His Own Words (London, 2003), esp. pp. 313–59.
139. T. J. Sugrue, Not Even Past: Barack Obama and the Burden of Race (Princeton, 2010), p. 53.
140. W. J. Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions (Chicago, 1978); Wilson, “The Declining Significance of Race: Revisited and Revised,” Daedalus (Spring 2011): 55–69; Sugrue, Not Even Past, pp. 73–80. See also D. J. Dickerson, The End of Blackness (New York, 2004), pp. 3–26.
141. For example, C. Coon, The Origin of Races (New York, 1963); J. R. Baker, Race (Oxford, 1974); R. Herrnstein and C. Murray, The Bell Curve: The Reshaping of American Life by Difference in Intelligence (New York, 1994); but see the devastating reviews by, respectively, A. Montagu, “What Is Remarkable About Varieties of Man Is Likenesses, Not Differences,” Current Anthropology 4 (1963): 361; J. B. Birdsell, Annals of Human Biology 2 (1975): 208–10; Gould, Mismeasure of Man, pp. 367–90.
142. Sugrue, Not Even Past, pp. 92–137; W. J. Wilson and R. P. Taub, There Goes the Neighborhood: Racial, Ethnic and Class Tensions in Four Chicago Neighborhoods and Their Meaning for America (New York, 2006), p. 161; B. Obama, The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream (New York, 2006), pp. 227–69; R. Kennedy, The Persistence of the Color Line: Racial Politics and the Obama Presidency (New York, 2011), p. 3.
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