Eunice, La., 165
Evans, Mercer G., 103
Ewan, Peggy. See Redden, Meg
Executive Order 8802, 126, 141
Exodusters, 17
Extension agents. See Agricultural Extension Service
Family labor system, 25–26, 226 (n. 28)
Farmer, James, 205, 206, 264–65 (n. 28)
Farmer-Labor Party, 243 (n. 28)
Farmers’ Educational and Cooperative Union of America. See National Farmers’ Union
Farmers’ Home Administration (FaHA), 113, 200, 246–47 (n. 28)
Farm Labor Program, 133–35
Farm Security Administration, 87–88, 102, 103, 105, 106–7, 108–10, 113, 239–40 (n. 28), 247 (nn. 70, 75). See also Farmers’ Home Administration
Favrot, Leo, 32, 50
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 112, 118, 125, 163, 184, 191–92, 194, 249 (nn. 85, 88)
Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), 87
Federal government: civil rights measures of, 15, 30, 38, 56, 88, 112, 116, 118, 126–27, 130, 132, 141–43, 144, 145, 148, 161, 163, 166, 169, 173, 177, 184, 194, 195, 198, 205, 207, 208, 249 (n. 28); failure to prevent violence, 17, 19–20, 34, 38–39, 82–83, 139, 163, 191–92, 228 (n. 28), 271 (n. 28);
complicity in Jim Crow, 17, 19–20, 38–39, 71, 74–75, 81–82, 117;
southern Democrats in, 39, 81, 134, 141, 145;
agricultural policies of, 76–81, 85–86, 87–88, 92–93, 96–97, 102, 103–5, 106–7, 108–11, 112–13, 114, 123–24, 133–35, 136, 146, 151–52, 199–200, 202, 236–37 (nn. 45, 50), 239–40 (n. 28), 245 (nn. 55, 57), 246–47 (nn. 69, 70, 75);
and Louisiana Farmers’ Union, 102–3, 105, 106–7, 112–13;
and African Americans after World War II, 150–53. See also New Deal; War on Poverty
Feingold, Miriam, 1, 2, 178, 179, 180, 181, 191, 193, 196, 205, 265 (n. 28)
Fellowship of Reconciliation, 172, 265 (n. 28)
Fenton, Charles, 192
Ferriday, La., 62, 90, 138–39, 160, 171, 181, 182, 189, 191, 192, 197, 205
Ferriday Freedom Movement (FFM), 182, 189, 192, 197
Fisher, Bernice, 264–65 (n. 28)
Folklore, black, 7, 41, 42, 44, 54
Fontenot, Louis, 103
Food for Freedom campaign, 123
France, 69
Franklinton, La., 57
Fraternal orders, 50, 52, 55, 144, 153, 162, 181, 183, 212
Freedmen's Bureau, 15
Freedom Ride, 178
Furnish system, 26, 28, 29, 153
Gaines, Ernest, 82
Gandhi, Mohondas, 172, 192
Gangsta rap, 6
Garrett, T. G., 69
Garris, Ben, 209
Gathering of Old Men, A (Gaines), 82
General Education Board, 50
Georgia, 142, 155
Germany, 114, 117, 140
GI Bill, 150–51, 266 (n. 28)
Glover, John S., 57
Godchaux Sugars, 244–45 (n. 28)
Gordon, Lena Mae, 127
Gordon, Spiver, 177, 209
Grambling, La., 192
Grambling College, 50
Grand Marie Vegetable Producers’ Cooperative (GMVPC), 200–201
Grant, George, 127
Great Depression, 4, 44, 84, 85, 89, 97. See also Louisiana Farmers’ Union; New Deal
Great Migration, 64–67, 70–71, 75–77, 233 (n. 28)
Great Society. See War on Poverty
Great Southern Lumber Company, 37, 83
Green, Edward, 138
Green, S. L., 124–25
Greensburg, La., 212
Greenup, Charlotte, 183
Guilbeau, Clayton, 163
Guillory, Wilbert, 212
Guinn, Jack, 264–65 (n. 28)
Hall, Clifton, 212, 213
Hall, Eual, 48–49, 212
Hall, John Henry, 170
Hall, Lawrence, 170
Hall, Lorin, 48–49
Hall, Luther E., 68
Hanes, Frank, 19–20
Harding Field, La., 129
Hardwood, La., 179
Hardy, J. Leo, 35
Hardy, Joe, 57, 58
Harleaux, W. W., 156, 160, 177, 266 (n. 28)
Harris, Cora Mae, 140
Harris, Eunice Hall, 210, 271–72 (n. 28)
Harris, Oliver W., 140
Harrison-Fletcher Bill, 107
Harvey, Fletcher, 183, 184, 187
Haynes, George E., 75
Haynes, J. K., 125, 170–71
Hazelwood Plantation, 47
Head Start, 201, 203, 204
Hebert, F. Edward, 169
Hicks, Otis, 42–43
Hobgood, J. H., 92–93
Holmes, Josephine, 182–83
Holt, Edgar, 127
Home Demonstration Program, 202
Home Mission Baptist Association, 55
Homer, La., 192
Hoover, J. Edgar, 118
Hopkins, Harold, 90–91
Houma Courier, 70
Houser, George, 264–65 (n. 2)
Houston, Tex., 69
Hudson, H. C., 84
Hymel, La., 162
Iberia Parish, La., 135
Iberville Parish, La., 2, 3; political and economic conditions in, 23, 35, 46, 57, 92, 93, 136, 148, 165;
black activism in, 55, 57, 125, 155, 156–60, 162, 165, 177, 180, 181, 266 (n. 28)
Iberville Parish Improvement Committee, 125
Improved Benevolent Order of Elks of the World, 56, 153
Infrapolitics. See Political activism, black: informal
International Union of Timber Workers, 83
International Woodworkers of America (IWA), 164–65
Israel, Louis, 92
Jack, Homer, 264–65 (n. 28)
Jackson, Lillie Pearl, 92
Jackson Parish, La., 2, 149
Jeanes Fund, 50
Jefferson Davis Parish, La., 135
Jefferson Parish, La., 156
Jenkins, Gayle, 191–92
Jim Crow era: limits of protest in, 4, 5–6, 11, 19–40, 218–19 (n. 28); black activism in, 4, 7–8, 41–63, 218–19 (n. 28), 231 (n. 28)
Johns, Major, 265 (n. 28)
Johnson, Charles S., 65, 233 (n. 28)
Johnson, Clyde, 98, 99, 100, 101, 106, 107, 241–42 (nn. 31, 35)
Johnson, Joel F., 33–34, 228 (n. 28)
Johnson, Kenny, 181–82, 194
Johnson, Lucille Overton, 170
Johnson, Lyndon B., 201
Jones, Alvin, 163
Jones, Johnnie, 33, 36, 38, 58, 60
Jones, Sam, 95, 125, 132
Jonesboro, La., 192, 193
Jordan, Thomas J., 77, 78
Juke joints, 43, 229 (n. 28)
Julius Rosenwald Fund, 50
Kennon, C. L., 93
Kennon, Robert, 166
Kilbourne, Charles S., 168, 185
Kilbourne, Richard, 185, 186
Kinchen, Benjamin, 71
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 5, 172, 194, 206, 272 (n. 28)
King Lumber Company, 179
Kleyman, Paul, 200
Knights and Ladies of Peter Claver, 55, 153
Knights of Labor, 17
Knights of Pythias, 183
Knights of the White Camellia, 16
Korean War, 171
Ku Klux Klan (KKK), 16, 82, 83, 94, 167, 168, 170, 185, 188, 190, 192, 193, 194, 205, 209, 210
Labor agents, 65, 66, 70–71
Labor laws: state, 13, 18, 29–30, 71, 74–75, 83, 166, 225 (nn. 30, 32); federal, 71, 87, 90, 92, 103–5, 133–35, 149, 166, 173–74
Labor shortages, 66, 70–71, 75, 95–96, 119, 129–30, 132–36, 241 (n. 24)
Labor unions, 8, 17, 83, 100, 144, 148, 150, 161, 162, 164–67, 173–74, 195, 197, 206, 220 (n. 6), 262 (n. 68). See also Louisiana Farmers’ Union
Lacey, Fred, 180
Lafayette, Leon, 258 (n. 28)
Lafayette, La., 203, 212
&nbs
p; Lake Charles, La., 119, 165
Landowners, black: as activists, 9, 48–49, 57–58, 59–60, 68, 153, 170, 179, 181, 183–84, 199–201; numbers of, 24, 109, 136–37, 146, 236 (n. 28), 247–48 (n. 28), 266 (n. 28);
in Jim Crow era, 38, 228 (n. 28);
and federal agricultural agencies, 77–81, 93, 108, 151–52, 236 (n. 28), 246 (n. 28)
Law enforcement: serves elite interests, 5, 18, 30–31, 71, 74–75, 110, 178, 183, 185–86, 227 (n. 28), 228 (n. 28); failure to protect black Louisianans, 20, 34–35, 56, 83, 191, 193, 194;
violence in, 36, 69, 127, 138, 160, 163, 166, 171, 189, 190, 191, 192, 197, 227 (n. 28);
changes after civil rights movement, 209
Laws, J. Bradford, 53
LeBlanc, A. P., 35
LeBlanc, Fred, 168, 170
Leche, Richard W., 91
Lemann, Arthur, 136
Lesser, Mike, 178, 184, 185, 188, 193
Lewis, George, 68
Lewis, Prince, 203
Lewis, Robert, 49, 51, 62, 160, 171, 180–81, 182, 189–90, 197, 205
Liberals, 18, 34, 83, 86, 97, 113–14, 141, 143, 150, 161, 167, 176, 242 (n. 35), 264 (n. 87)
Lightnin’ Slim (Otis Hicks), 42–43
Lincoln Parish, La., 76, 236 (n. 28)
Literacy, 49, 90–91, 97, 101. See also Education, black; Political activism, black: for education
Livingston Parish, La., 148
Lloyd, J. A. M., 109
Local activists: perceptions of struggle, 1–2, 7, 101–2, 164, 174, 175–76, 196–97, 201–2, 206, 219 (n. 28); political tradition of, 2, 6–8, 9, 18, 41–42, 63, 101–2, 140, 162, 164, 171, 206;
and Congress of Racial Equality, 4, 6, 9, 62, 175–76, 177, 178, 179–84, 187, 192–93, 196–97, 205–6;
role in freedom struggle, 5, 6–8, 9, 206;
economic independence of, 9, 151, 152–55, 179, 182–83, 266 (n. 16);
and nonviolence, 172, 188–89, 192–93;
and national civil rights movement, 173, 174, 187, 192–93, 205–6. See also Louisiana Farmers’ Union; Political activism, black
Lombard, Rudy, 62, 212
Long, Earl, 163–64
Long, Huey, 86–87, 163, 238 (nn. 2–3)
Long Leaf, La., 165
Louisiana: geography and regions of, 2–4, 10–13; French influences in, 10–11, 12, 13;
economic development of, 10–13, 20–24, 89–90, 115, 119, 122, 130–32, 135–37, 146–49, 185–86, 198, 221–22 (nn. 5, 7, 12), 224 (n. 28), 236 (n. 28), 251 (n. 28);
state government of, 13, 15, 18, 21, 50, 143, 146, 169–70, 180, 204, 276 (n. 17);
local government in, 13, 15, 33, 34–36, 38–39, 50, 71, 74–75, 77, 81, 86–87, 94, 141, 163–64, 165, 185–86, 198, 199–200, 202–4, 228 (n. 64), 276 (n. 17);
politics in, 13, 15–18, 86–87, 143, 163–64, 167, 168–70, 198, 202–4, 207–12. See also Law enforcement; Social context
Louisiana Civil Liberties Union, 194
Louisiana Civil Service Commission, 187
Louisiana Colored Teachers’ Association (LCTA), 125, 155, 170
Louisiana Constitution of 1868, 18
Louisiana Delta Council, 148
Louisiana Farm Bureau, 114, 166, 262 (n. 28)
Louisiana Farmers’ Union (LFU), 2, 4, 56, 86; communists in, 97–99, 105–6, 242 (n. 28);
organization of, 97–101;
black responses to, 98, 99, 101–2, 105–6;
membership growth of, 98, 99, 105, 113–14, 249 (n. 88);
staff of, 98–99, 241–42 (nn. 31, 35), 248 (n. 78);
cooperation with other
groups, 99–100, 242 (n. 35), 243 (n. 40);
and tenant farmers, 100, 102–3, 106–7, 108–9, 242 (n. 35), 247 (n. 70);
and sugar workers, 100, 103–5, 245 (nn. 57, 59);
finances of, 100–101, 105, 113–14, 243 (n. 40), 248 (n. 78);
women in, 100–101, 107, 243 (n. 44);
white responses to, 101, 102–3, 105–6, 110–11, 112, 114, 248 (n. 78);
interracialism in, 101, 244 (nn. 46, 48);
and federal officials, 102, 103, 105, 106–7, 112–13;
demise of, 113–15;
links to civil rights movement, 155, 199, 258 (n. 28)
Louisiana Freedom Task Force. See Congress of Racial Equality
Louisiana Joint Legislative Committee on Segregation, 169, 170
Louisiana Right to Work Council, 166
Louisiana State Board of Agriculture and Immigration, 21
Louisiana State Board of Education, 156, 159
Louisiana State Council of Defense, 74
Louisiana State Department of Education, 32, 50–51
Louisiana State Federation of Labor, 243 (n. 40)
Louisiana State Guard, 138–39
Louisiana State University, 103–4
Louisiana Sugar Planters’ Association, 22
Louisiana Twentieth Judicial District, 185–86
Louisiana Weekly, 61, 80, 87, 92, 150, 162, 183, 192
Lowndes County, Ala., 98
Lumber industry, 21, 22–23, 28–29, 37–38, 43, 90, 148–49, 164–65, 224 (n. 25), 228 (n. 57), 239 (n. 8)
Lynching, 20, 128, 139, 232 (n. 44); as labor control, 33, 97, 112;
in Louisiana, 34–36, 39, 58–59, 66, 68, 82, 83, 112;
attempts to combat, 39, 61, 68, 76, 82, 141–42, 171. See also Political activism, black: against violence; Violence
McCain, Jim, 193
McCarty, Lucius, 82
McDonald, Max, 135
McIntire, Gordon, 98–115 passim, 244 (n. 48), 245 (n. 57), 249 (n. 85)
McKeithen, John, 204
McKenzie, Charles, 134
McKissick, Floyd, 205
McKnight, Albert, 203
McMillon, Wiley B., 156–57, 158, 159
Maddux, N. Watts, 95
Madison Journal, 23, 71, 118, 119
Madison Parish, La., 3; black activism in, 1, 2, 78, 88, 118, 119, 125, 153, 161, 162, 171, 179, 205–6, 211–12, 230 (n. 23);
political and economic conditions in, 21, 29, 33–34, 36, 71, 135, 162, 164, 211–12, 227 (n. 48), 239 (n. 8)
Magee, Joe, 57
Magee, Myrtis, 79–80
Manufacturing: growth of, 9, 22, 89–90, 116, 119, 146, 148–49, 212, 221–22 (n. 5), 251 (n. 13); African Americans in, 9, 116, 119, 130–32, 137, 141, 149, 153, 257 (n. 14)
March on Washington Movement (MOWM), 125, 126, 141
Marshall, Thurgood, 158
Martin, T. H., 35, 92
Marx, Karl, 106
Maryland, 155
Mason, Lucy Randolph, 164
Massive resistance, 169–70
Matthews, Hazel, 266 (n. 16)
Matthews, Mose, 79
Mechanization, 9, 96, 135–36, 145
Middle-class black people: as activists, 5, 77, 152–53, 190, 236 (n. 38); as accommodationists, 5, 77, 155, 181, 201, 210–11, 218–19 (n. 38), 236 (n. 38);
after World War II, 150, 152–53, 190
Migration, black, 2, 9, 115, 116, 118–19, 250 (n. 92); as protest, 4, 17, 45–46, 64–67, 206, 229–30 (n. 14), 233 (n. 4);
frequency of, 23, 229 (n. 10);
planter responses to, 29, 70–71, 75–77, 132, 133–34, 135–36, 225 (n. 30)
Miller, J. D., 42–43
Minden, La., 192
Ministers, black, 38, 54, 68, 79, 134, 155, 180–81, 182–83, 266 (n. 16)
Minor, Raymond, 184
Minor, William, 152, 184
Mississippi, 27, 75, 151; similarities to Louisiana, 2, 11, 19, 20, 143, 148, 190, 191;
freedom struggle in, 5, 83, 97, 164, 170, 190, 191, 192
Mississippi Delta, 4, 11, 25, 96
Mississippi Delta Council, 148, 257 (n. 9)
Missouri, 97, 142
Mitchell, H. L., 39, 99, 167, 242 (n. 35)
Monroe, La., 67, 94, 134
Montgomery, Ala., bus boycott, 172, 174
Montgomery County, Md., 155
Moore, Ronnie, 177, 181, 183, 184, 186, 197, 205, 211
Morehouse Parish, La., 76, 82
Morning Star Society, 55
Movable School, 76
Natchitoches Parish, La., 56, 68, 76, 110, 112
National Agricultural Workers’ Union (NAWU). See Southern Tenant Farmers’ Union
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP): and local activists, 5, 7, 9, 61, 64, 67–69, 75, 125, 140, 143, 144, 150, 171, 206, 258 (n. 28); in Jim Crow era, 38, 48, 57;
white responses to, 55, 83–84, 167–69;
composition of branches, 67–68, 126, 153, 155;
antilynching campaigns of, 68;
education campaigns of, 76, 82, 125, 155–61, 169–70, 180, 198, 226 (n. 36);
voter registration campaigns of, 142, 161–64, 177;
cooperation with labor organizations, 164, 166–67, 173–74
National Farmers’ Union (NFU), 97, 99–100, 114, 244 (n. 48), 248 (n. 78)
National Negro Congress, 94, 164
National Recovery Administration (NRA), 87, 90, 92
Nazism, 117, 140, 145, 172
Nelson, Annette, 90
New Deal, 4; impact on African Americans, 8, 85, 88–91, 92–94, 96–97, 109–10, 115;
relief programs of, 87–88;
limits of, 91–92, 95–97, 108;
discrimination in, 92–94, 96–97, 102, 108, 110–11, 247 (n. 70), 248 (n. 80);
conservative attacks on, 112–13, 199
New Iberia, La., 138
New Negro, 70
New Orleans, La., 10, 15, 66; black activism in, 4, 61–62, 67, 69, 75, 84, 98, 102, 117, 125, 126, 127, 153, 161, 192;
political and economic conditions in, 44, 127, 132, 138
New South, 20–23, 221–22 (nn. 5, 7)
Newspapers, black: support armed self-defense, 61–62, 139–40, 232 (n. 44); and World War I, 67, 68–69;
and World War II, 116, 117–18, 124–25
Noflin, Bernice, 201
Nonviolence, 58, 172–73, 175–76, 177, 178–79, 188–89, 192–93, 194–95, 206
Norman, Frank, 190
North Louisiana Cotton Association, 22
Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), 200, 201, 202, 203–4
Office of War Information (OWI), 117, 137
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