by Ronald Weber
169 radio traffic: Ibid., 202–204.
170 “to its doom”: Douglas L. Wheeler, “World War II: Leslie Howard May Have Helped Britain Win,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, April 5, 2005, 4.
Chapter 8: Holding Out Hopes
171 casual inspection: Marino, A Quiet American, 89, 345.
171 “was our work”: Charles R. Joy, “Lives Were Saved,” in Together We Advance, ed. Stephen H. Fritchman (Boston, 1947), 23. For more on the USC’s wartime work, see Susan Elisabeth Subak, American Relief Workers Who Defied the Nazis (Lincoln, Nebr., 2010).
172 German hands: Haim Genizi, “Christian Charity: The Unitarian Service Committee’s Relief Activities on Behalf of Refugees from Nazism, 1940–1945,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 2:2 (1987), 265.
172 “off their hands”: Quoted in Ghanda Di Figlia, Roots and Visions: The First Fifty Years of the Unitarian Universalist Service Committee (Boston, 1990), 27–28.
173 “American Consulate”: Ibid., 20–21.
173 for a scoop: Marino, A Quiet American, 185–186.
173 to reporters: New York Times, October 6, 1940, 38.
174 of her refugees: Ghanda Di Figlia, “Martha Sharp Cogan and Waitstill Hastings Sharp,” http://harvardsquarelibrary.org/unitarians/cogan.html.
174 “the war began”: New York Times, December 24, 1940, 7.
174 officials in Boston: For some detail about the dispute, see Di Figlia, Roots and Visions, 28.
174 “friendly gesture”: Di Figlia, “Martha Sharp Cogan and Waitstill Hastings Sharp.” In Roots and Visions, Di Figlia does not mention the Portuguese request to close the Lisbon office.
174 permanent destinations: Martha D. Sharp, “Unitarian Service in the Iberian Peninsula,” Christian Register, January 1946, 25. In 2005 the Sharps were named Righteous Among the Nations by the Yad Vashem memorial.
175 using the USC: Genizi, “Christian Charity,” 264.
175 dedicated Communist: Field’s work with the USC and involvement with the Communist party are examined at length in Flora Lewis, Red Pawn: The Story of Noel Field (Garden City, N.Y., 1965). See also Stewart Steven, Operation Splinter Factor (Philadelphia, 1974), 72–93.
175 sent to Marseille: Brooks, Prisoners of Hope, 22.
176 “properly delivered”: Ibid., 24.
176 “admired his work”: Ibid., x.
176 “working there”: Ibid., 282.
176 “return to the States”: Fry, Surrender on Demand, 220.
176 Vichy authorities: Lewis, Red Pawn, 130.
177 American ambassador: Ibid., 141–142. For Dulles’s secret work in Bern and his connection with Field, see Peter Grose, Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles (Boston, 1994).
177 “to make reports”: Quoted in Di Figlia, Roots and Visions, 29.
178 orders from Moscow: This point is made in Grose, Gentleman Spy, 168–169.
178 to OSS attention: The assessment is Lewis’s in Red Pawn, 143.
178 Communist-front: The charge is made as fact in Steven, The Splinter Factor, 88.
178 was eased out: For Field’s separation from the USC, see Lewis, Red Pawn, 176–180, and Genizi, “Christian Charity,” 275 n52.
178 Iron Curtain: For the strange period of Field’s life that followed, see Lewis, Red Pawn, 198ff.
179 replace a man: Howard Wriggins, Picking Up the Pieces from Portugal to Palestine: Quaker Refugee Relief in World War II (Lanham, Md., 2004). I follow this work for the account below.
179 “best I could”: Ibid., 22.
180 “over the lip”: Ibid.
180 new application: Wyman, Paper Walls, 164.
181 “some distinctions”: Wriggins, Picking Up the Pieces, 27.
182 by a wave: New York Times, January 8, 1943, 11.
182 “waits anxiously”: Wriggins, Picking Up the Pieces, 58.
183 “Nazi victory”: Ibid, 54.
183 European headquarters: For further detail about the work of Schwartz and the JDC, see Yehuda Bauer, American Jewry and the Holocaust: The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1939–1945 (Detroit, 1981), 45ff. See also Oscar Handlin, A Continuing Task: The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1914–1964 (New York, 1964), 74–89.
184 “despair with dignity”: Quoted in Bauer, American Jewry and the Holocaust, 55.
184 entire wartime period: The figures are given, respectively, in Bauer, American Jewry and the Holocaust, 47–48; Handlin, A Continuing Task, 87; and Marrus, The Unwanted, 264.
185 on their behalf: Bauer, American Jewry and the Holocaust, 206–207.
185 as the representative: Differing versions of the creation of the Madrid relief office are given in Bauer, American Jewry and the Holocaust, 207; Wriggins, Picking Up the Pieces, 51; and Hayes, Wartime Mission in Spain, 122–123.
185 moving to France: New York Times, February 6, 1941, 3.
185 most of the costs: Wriggins, Picking Up the Pieces, 52.
186 his appointment: Bauer, American Jewry and the Holocaust, 213–214.
186 From a prosperous: A full account of Israel’s life and work is given in Naomi Shepherd, A Refuge from Darkness: Wilfrid Israel and the Rescue of the Jews (New York, 1984). I largely follow this work for the account below.
187 “Joint and Hadassah”: Quoted in ibid., 177.
188 “save the situation”: Ibid., 228.
189 throughout occupied Europe: Shepherd says that while Israel was in Spain “the Agency Executive now … had second thoughts” about his mission. She adds that “the organization which had sent him to Portugal and Spain now reined him in.” A Refuge from Darkness, 248.
189 “played the part”: Quoted in Colvin, Flight 777, 143.
190 of the journey: Shepherd, A Refuge from Darkness, 250–251. For more on the rescue of children from occupied territory, see Bauer, American Jewry and the Holocaust, 258ff.
190 bag of largesse: Taylor, Time Runs Out, 51–52.
190 “of my ability”: The Times (London), January 30, 1941, 5.
190 was honored: The Times (London), November 24, 1945, 7.
191 prisoners of war: Miller, Mercy Ships, 73–81.
191 camps in Germany: New York Times, September 7, 1944, 4.
Chapter 9: Gloriously Neutral
193 war’s fifth year: The Times (London), September 8, 1943, 5.
193 “like the rest”: Quoted in ibid.
194 “without blackout”: Arthur Koestler, Arrival and Departure (New York, 1943), 5. Subsequent quoted passages below are found, respectively, on pages 7, 9, 163, 166, 164, 18.
195 darkened his life: In a comment about the novel, Koestler said that the Nazi brutality Slavek describes was based on real events, including the early period of the Holocaust. Arthur Koestler, Bricks to Babel (New York, 1980), 203.
196 “and Subjects”: R. E. Vintras, The Portuguese Connection: The Secret History of the Azores Base (London, 1974), 111. The texts of both treaties are printed as appendices to the book.
196 “survival as a state”: Fernando Rosas, “Portuguese Neutrality in the Second World War,” in European Neutrals and NonBelligerents During the Second World War, ed. Neville Wylie (New York, 2002), 269. The essay gives a concise account of Portugal’s wartime neutrality. For more on the workings of the Anglo-Portuguese alliance, see, among numerous other works, Glyn Stone, The Oldest Ally: Britain and the Portuguese Connection, 1936–1941 (London, 1994).
197 bringing from Salazar: Quoted in Kay, Salazar and Modern Portugal, 153.
197 “in this determination”: New York Times, September 3, 1939, 17.
197 to provide it: For more on British views of Portuguese neutrality in the early period of the war, see Stone, The Oldest Ally, 131ff.
197 “worst happened”: Walford Selby, Diplomatic Twilight, 1930–1940 (London, 1953), 116–117.
198 “impeccable neutrality”: Quoted in Glyn A. Stone, Spain, Portugal and the Great Powers, 1931–1941 (New York, 2005), 124.
198 any such appeal: Stone, Spain, Portugal and th
e Great Powers, 124.
198 “render assistance”: Quoted in ibid.
198 “English Alliance”: Ibid., 131.
198 “will be built”: New York Times, May 30, 1940, 2.
198 a central role: Rosas, “Portuguese Neutrality in the Second World War,” 276–277. See also Kay, Salazar and Modern Portugal, 122.
198 German submarines: Payne, Franco and Hitler, 56–57.
198 for the Axis: For more on the implications of nonbelligerence, see ibid., 63.
199 “Spain’s Greece”: Ibid., 96.
199 Atlantic coast: For details of the invasion plan, see ibid., 95–98.
199 invade the country: Ibid., 100ff.
200 “Berlin Push”: New York Times, December 13, 1941, 8.
200 Felix was shelved: For more on Operation Felix, see Waller, The Unseen War in Europe, 153–162.
200 Blue Division: For a concise account of the Blue Division, see Payne, Franco and Hitler, 146–154.
200 “as in material”: William D. Leahy, I Was There (New York, 1950), 166.
201 “a living soul”: Quoted in Persico, Roosevelt’s Secret War, 306. The decoded message is reproduced in the book’s photo section.
201 swing toward Germany: For more on shifts in Portuguese neutrality, see Rosas, “Portuguese Neutrality in the Second World War,” 273–279.
201 to the enemy: The Allied blockade, including the navicert system, is closely examined in The War and the Neutrals, ed. Arnold Toynbee and Veronica M. Toynbee (London, 1956), 1–104.
202 duration of the war: Kay, Salazar and Modern Portugal, 165. For more on the Timor incident, see Stone, The Oldest Ally, 182–199.
202 ending the alliance: Muir, European Junction, 146.
202 to its spirit: Kay, Salazar and Modern Portugal, 123.
203 “land in Europe”: Vernon A. Walters, review of Vintras, The Portuguese Connection, http://csi/docs/v18i4a04p_0001.html.
203 “one fine morning”: Quoted in Neville Wylie, “‘An Amateur Learns His Job’? Special Operations Executive in Portugal, 1940–1942,” Journal of Contemporary History, 36:3 (2001), 444.
203 “little value”: Quoted in Kay, Salazar and Modern Portugal, 167. Ambassador Campbell’s letter to Salazar invoking the alliance and Salazar’s reply are reprinted as appendices in Vintras, The Portuguese Connection.
203 news leaked out: Douglas L. Wheeler notes that decoded German-Japanese diplomatic exchanges reveal that Germany had some knowledge of the secret deal. “In the Service of Order,” 24 n43.
204 “of British diplomacy”: Winston S. Churchill, Closing the Ring (Boston, 1951), 165.
204 events and personalities: Kennan, Memoirs, 143–145.
204 in Florida: Anglo-Portuguese News, July 29, 1943, 2.
204 “smaht for me”: Kennan, Memoirs, 145.
205 expectation of attack: Ibid., 150. The Azores agreement may have taken Hitler by surprise. A report in the Saturday Evening Post had it that the German minister in Lisbon showed Salazar a newspaper with a headline reading “Churchill Announces Azores Bases for Britain,” and added that Hitler would surely recall him for failure to prevent the deal. Salazar proceeded to phone the German foreign office, eventually reached both Ribbentrop and Hitler, and asked that the minister remain in Lisbon. Henry J. Taylor, “Euorpe’s Unknown Strong Man,” Saturday Evening Post, August 19, 1944, 9ff. For a quite different account of the German minister’s response to the Azores accord, see Christian Leitz, Sympathy for the Devil: Neutral Europe and Nazi Germany in World War II (New York, 2001), 154–155.
205 “was a participant”: “Bargain Bases,” Time, October 25, 1943, 36.
205 calm the storm: “Excitement in Lisbon,” Time, October 18, 1943, 31.
206 Gibraltar or Lisbon: Hayes, Wartime Mission in Spain, 168–169.
206 “by Spain”: Quoted in ibid., 170.
206 the two cities: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1943, vol. 2, 535–538.
206 “of the inhabitants”: Kennan, Memoirs, 151.
207 “have to do it”: George F. Kennan, Measures Short of War, ed. Giles D. Harlow and George C. Maerz (Washington, D.C., 1991), 141. In lectures at the National War College in 1946–1947, collected in this volume, Kennan provided considerable detail about his diplomatic work in Portugal, which would appear in more condensed and formal fashion in his Memoirs.
207 “people over there”: Quoted in Kennan, Memoirs, 161. For another version of Kennan’s session at the War Department and his meeting with Roosevelt, see his Measures Short of War, 145–147.
207 “and great friendship”: Roosevelt’s letter is reproduced in Kennan, Measures Short of War, 147.
208 “meeting the requirements”: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1943, vol. 2, 571–572.
208 “external appearance”: Ibid., 573.
208 and the United States: Kay, Salazar and Modern Portugal, 170.
208 “base stealer”: Quoted in J. K. Sweeney, United States’ Policy Toward Portugal During the Second World War (Ph.D. dissertation, Kent State University, 1970), 36.
208 “trading over details”: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1943, vol. 2, 570.
208 “and little details”: Kennan, Measures Short of War, 151.
Chapter 10: War without Guns
209 posting before Lisbon: Selby, Diplomatic Twilight, 89.
209 “maximum output”: Muir, European Junction, 42.
210 “moral cleansing”: Quoted in Gallagher, Portugal, 101.
210 best for it: Kay, Salazar and Modern Portugal, 72.
210 with censorship: Antonio Tabucchi, Pereira Declares, trans. Patrick Creagh (New York, 1995). Quotation marks added to dialogue.
211 “to be neutral”: Reynolds and Eleanor Packard, Balcony Empire, 361–362.
211 up his pace: Shirer, Berlin Diary, 603–604.
211 both nations: Leitz, Sympathy for the Devil, 150.
212 Axis newsmen: Meneses, Salazar, 252.
212 divided attitudes: On this point, see António Costa Pinto, The Blue Shirts: Portuguese Fascists and the New State (Boulder, Colo., 2000), 217.
212 for Churchill: Marion Kaplan, The Portuguese (New York, 1991), 131–132.
213 other languages: Cole, Britain and the War of Words in Neutral Europe, 56.
213 returned home: David Kahn, Hitler’s Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II (New York, 1978), 161.
213 double the amount: “What Price News,” Time, September 27, 1940, 44.
213 off to Berlin: Kahn, Hitler’s Spies, 161.
213 conquered countries: These and other details of German propaganda in Lisbon are given in Muir, European Junction, 42ff.
213 modern art: Beaton, The Years Between, 196.
214 of all sorts: The Times (London), March 8, 1940, 7.
214 anti-German declarations: Cole, Britain and the War of Words in Neutral Europe, 53–54.
215 propaganda triumphs: It would have been a propaganda disaster had the Germans known some details of the Duke’s private life, as David Corkill notes in “The Double Centenary Commemorations of 1940,” 160–161.
215 “are livid”: Quoted in Stone, Spain, Portugal and the Great Powers, 186.
215 “paid off”: Eccles, By Safe Hand, 100.
216 stop to both: Cole, Britain and the War of Words in Neutral Europe, 55.
216 nine by Britain: Douglas L. Wheeler, review of António Telo, Portugal Na Segunda Guerra, Luso-Brazilian Review, 27:1 (Summer 1990), 135–136.
216 blunt title: Cheke served as press attaché of the British embassy in Lisbon from 1938 to 1942, then as first secretary until 1945. His scholarly writing includes Carlota Joaquina: Queen of Portugal in 1947.
216 with some care: Cole, Britain and the War of Words in Neutral Europe, 91.
216 sacked him: Ibid., 92.
217 hostile isolation: “Dr. Salazar in Doubt,” The Economist, July 4, 1942, 9.
217 Legion force: Stone, Spain, Portugal and the Great Powers, 171–17
2.
217 was hopeless: Gallagher, Portugal, 194. In April 1974 the officer, General António Spinola, became president of Portugal following the overthrow of the dictatorship.
218 and pro-German: The Times (London), April 22, 1942, 3.
218 at high rates: The Times (London), October 21, 1941, 3.
218 German badges: Cole, Britain and the War of Words in Neutral Europe, 70.
218 the pro-German: New York Times, December 25, 1940, 19.
218 seen the paper: David E. Walker, Lunch with a Stranger (New York, 1957), 160.
219 the same result: Muir, European Junction, 49.
219 sea blockade: Cole, Britain and the War of Words in Neutral Europe, 111.
219 into Nazi arms: This point is made in ibid., 70.
219 “with both hands”: New York Times, September 10, 1942, 8.
220 and deadpan no: Jack Alexander, “The Nazi Offensive in Lisbon,” Saturday Evening Post, March 6, 1943, 86.
220 “has passed away”: The Times (London), August 13, 1941, 3.
220 in fact he was: David E. Walker recounts his secret work in Lisbon in his memoir Lunch with a Stranger, 149–213. I follow this work for the account below. In his study of twentieth-century spying, Phillip Knightley singles out journalists like Walker as among the SOE’s better recruits for spreading black propaganda. The Second Oldest Profession (New York, 1986), n121.
221 continue the war: Michael Balfour, Propaganda in War, 1939–1945 (London, 1979), 98.
222 “chief neutrals”: “Neutral Nervousness,” Time, December 29, 1941, 22.
224 the two separate: Cole, Britain and the War of Words in Neutral Europe, 105.
225 “on political grounds”: Quoted in Ibid., 133.
225 “unpleasant”: Ibid.
225 for the Continent: Wallace Carroll, Persuade or Perish (Boston, 1948), 190. The post–D-Day figure is given in Clayton D. Laurie, The Propaganda Warriors: America’s Crusade Against Nazi Germany (Lawrence, Kans., 1996), 126.
225 “by the Nazis”: Laurie, The Propaganda Warriors, 192. For more on the MO Branch, see this work. See also Mauch, The Shadow War Against Hitler, 135–162.
226 hopeful encounters: Laurie, The Propaganda Warriors, 196.
226 Goebbels did so: Terry Crowdy, Deceiving Hitler: Double Cross Deception in World War II (Oxford, UK, 2008), 217.