The senatorial election results indicated the Republicans lost six seats with their majority slipping to 43 – 35 over the Democrats. The Parti-Patriot in Quebec maintained their two seats. The Anti-Monopoly Party retained its one seat, and an Independent was the victor in one of the lost Republican seats.
In the House of Representatives, the Republicans gained thirty-three seats, including two new districts in Dominica, which resulted from migration, principally from the South. An additional Twenty-Seven came from victories over Democrats, and four from Independents. Four seats remained with the Parti-Patriote, three in Quebec and one in Ontario. The Democrat Party majority declined to nineteen seats.
Both Republicans and Democrats could savor their gains. The Democrats were cheered as they came the closest to winning the Presidency since 1856. They had retained control of the House of Representatives, and their gains in the Senate improved their chances of being a meaningful opposition.
The Republicans had retained their control of the Presidency and made substantial gains in the House of Representatives. However, all their losses in the Senate were seats held by Stalwarts. Twenty-Five of their gains in the House of Representatives were by Republicans viewed as Half-Breeds, and the others were moderates. Changes were needed. The new Vice President-Elect William Wheeler was viewed as a moderate and could be a bridge between the two factions. He also helped to mitigate the corruption issue. He had opposed the Congressional pay raise and returned his increase in pay to the treasury.
Hamilton Fish resigned as Secretary of State after successfully winning the governorship of New York. Wheeler encouraged President Grant to appoint Congressman James Garfield as Secretary of State. Garfield was a moderate and aligned himself with the Half-Breeds. With two of their members as high officials in the Grant Administration, the Half-Breeds moderated their views and were able to reach a compromise on the Spoils System issue. Grant chose one-half of his cabinet using the Spoils System. The other half he appointed on merit.
When the new Congress was sworn in in December, a deal was made with the Democrats to introduce legislation to establish a merit system for appointees to government service except for those requiring confirmation by the Senate. The bill passed with rare bipartisan support and President Grant signed the bill into law. The compromise effectively eliminated the worst aspects of the Spoils System.
The elections in Cuba and Puerto Rico elected local mayors, city councils, and representatives to territorial assemblies. A substantial migration of Black Americans teamed together with pro-annexation Cubans and Puerto Ricans to form majorities in both assemblies. With the elected assemblies taking control of civilian administration, the military occupation ended on December 31, 1877. Civilian Territorial Governors were appointed to both islands and confirmed by the Senate.
The elected assemblies quickly developed plans to improve roads and extend telegraph communication all across the islands. These efforts improved the systems of transportation including, roads, bridges, and railroads spurring on economic prosperity. Industrial development increased as industries expanded operations into Cuba and Puerto Rico. Wealthy Americans purchased coastal land, establishing estates on previously inaccessible areas. These estates became the Caribbean winter retreat destinations for Northern industrialists.
Thriving resort towns soon developed to service the needs of the industrialist families. With the establishment of the new towns, additional schools saw to the education of the children and young adults. These schools taught the benefits of American Civilization, and it’s constitutional form of government. For peoples who suffered for hundreds of years under colonial rule, the opportunity of self-government was a welcome idea.
Chapter 32
Naval Arms Race
While the United States was focusing on consolidating its power in Cuba and Puerto Rico, the European powers were busy constructing modern ironclad turreted battleships. Great Britain, France, Italy, Austria-Hungary and The Ottoman Empire were all rivals in the Mediterranean Sea. As soon as one nation constructed a class of ironclad battleships, the other nations upped the ante with bigger ships.
The Royal Navy, having learned the difficult lessons from the Battle of the Gulf of Maine, began with the three-ship Devastation Class. These were larger versions of the United States Navy Agamenticus Class Ironclads. However, as the Royal Navy had not developed an effective breech-loading long gun, these ironclads were equipped with four 12.5-inch rifled muzzle loaders, utilizing the hydraulic raising and lowering method discarded by the United States Navy. The other navies matched the Royal Navy, however, had larger guns.
The Royal Navy upgraded to the two-ship Ajax class. This battleship class were longer; more heavily armored, had four 13-inch rifled muzzle loaders, and a secondary battery of five 6-inch rifled muzzle loaders. The other powers built matching battleships.
The German Empire entered the contest and upped the ante with 14-inch breech-loading long guns designed by Krupp. The German Empire began to build battleships armed with the new guns and armed their frigate class and Corvette class warships with 6-inch versions. The construction of the Kiel Canal across the Jutland Peninsula gave the Kriegsmarine easy access to the Atlantic Ocean.
British agents were in Germany observing a demonstration of the new Krupp cannons. One of the designers carelessly left his design on a table. The British agents copied the Krupp design and brought it back to the development center in Woolrich. After a trial and error period, the Royal Navy began building the guns at Woolrich.
With the new breech-loading long guns, the Royal Navy developed the Colossus Class of battleships with 16.5-inch long guns in single turrets situated fore and aft. The Colossus Class battleships also had five 6-inch breech-loaders in twin turrets, and two 14” torpedo tubes. Shortly after developing the Colossus Battleships, the Royal Navy developed the six-ship Admiral Class which was a match with the United States Navy Massachusetts Class. When the other powers began to match the Royal Navy battleships, a full-scale arms race developed.
The United States Navy was not overly concerned as the European powers were competing for supremacy. War was a constant threat between Italy and Austria-Hungary, and between Austria–Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. France and Great Britain were rivals and competed by matching each other in the English Channel and Mediterranean fleets.
The newly commissioned USS Indiana joined the fleet. The shipyards were constructing the three-ship Maine Class battleships. These warships would be larger and more heavily armed than the Massachusetts class. Guns would include four 12-inch long guns in two turrets, sixteen 6-inch long guns in eight turrets, two torpedo tubes, and an assortment of 16 smaller guns to combat small torpedo boats. These would be the last ironclad battleships constructed for the United States Navy. The Connecticut Class of six all steel battleships was under development.
Construction of a major naval base was underway adjacent to Seattle in Bremerton, Washington. This base would take advantage of Puget Sound, which is a deep water, isolated sound for training purposes. It was ideally situated to be safe from prying eyes of foreign navies. The location at Bremerton would give the United States Navy an additional strong and defensible naval base on the Pacific Coast for maintenance and repairs of the naval vessels.
Presidential Election 1880.
The off-year elections of 1878 were a disappointment to Republicans. They lost seven additional Senate seats, and for the first time since 1860, they were the minority party in both houses of Congress. The Congressional leadership blamed President Grant and sent him a letter signed by over 80% of Representatives and Senators urging him not to run. Grant, who had been President for ten years, acceded to their wishes and announced his retirement.
On June 2, The Republican convention convened in Chicago Illinois. James G Blaine of Maine won on the first ballot. The Vice Presidential nomination was between James Garfield and John Sherman, who were both from Ohio. John Sherman, the brother of W.T Sherman, was a moderate, a
nd not aligned with either the Stalwarts or the Half-Breeds. He won on the second ballot.
The Democrat Convention met in Cincinnati, Ohio. Winfield Scott Hancock won on the first ballot. His running mate Samuel J Randall also won the Vice Presidential nomination on the first ballot.
There was little difference between the Republicans and Democrats. Both had factions favoring high tariffs, and the Gold Standard. Republican voters usually included Northern Protestants and Blacks. The Democrats usually included Southern Protestants and Northern Catholics. Citizens in Ontario were predominately Protestant Republicans. Citizens in Quebec were predominately Catholic but were fiercely loyal to the Parti-Patriote. The Party-Patriot considered themselves to be Independents in Congress and depending on the issue sided with either the Republicans or the Democrats.
There was a third party, the Greenbacks. The party was made up of left-wing Democrats who rejected the centrist positions of the Democrat Party. They nominated an Iowa Congressman and Civil War General James B Weaver for President, and Barzillia Chambers, a Texas businessman for Vice President. The Greenbacks wanted to de-monetize money from the Gold Standard and issue paper dollars based on the good faith and credit of the United States of America.
On November 2, the polls opened, and 78% of the voters cast ballots. The vote count gave the Blaine Ticket 4,956,501 votes. The Hancock Ticket received 4,560,410 votes. The Greenbacks won only 308,649 votes. The Electoral College was more lopsided, providing Blaine with 233 Electoral Votes and Hancock 155. The Republicans also regained control of both Houses of Congress.
When the new Congress convened on December 7, 1880, it faced a new decade with fresh challenges. Cuba and Puerto had elected non-voting representatives to Congress. Naval bases were under expansion in Hawaii and Domenica. With strong naval forces on both coasts, a canal through Central America became a necessity. President-Elect Blaine favored future expansion. With Manifest Destiny realized, what would the new decade bring?
Chapter 33
On March 4, 1881, following President Blaine’s inauguration, several gala receptions were held. At one of the receptions receiving lines, Blaine met the Consul General to Liberia, John Smyth who asked for an appointment to discuss pressing Liberian issues. President Blaine agreed and requested his Chief of Staff, John Edwards to set up a meeting the following week.
At 2 pm on March 11, Consul General John Smyth arrived for his appointment with President Blaine. He met with John Edwards and Secretary of State James Garfield. Together the three of them entered into the Oval Office. President Blaine’s schedule was full, so he quickly asked John Smyth what was so urgent in Liberia.
Recognizing the President’s mood, Smyth went directly to the point. “Mr. President, Liberia, over the past six years has actively extended its borders to the north occupying the unclaimed territory between British Ruled Sierra Leone and French ruled Ivory Coast. Originally, this was to accommodate increased immigration of southern blacks into Liberia. While that was the truth, another reason has surfaced. There are numerous gold and silver discoveries in that area. Liberia intends to exploit those resources by populating and annexing that territory. Their army has already established several forts in the area.
News like that is impossible to suppress for long, and a gold rush is in the making. Liberian troops are patrolling their side of the borders on each side, and are turning back the French and British prospectors. Both the British and French chargé d'affaires have lodged protests at my office in Monrovia, and are threatening serious consequences if the current situation persists. I bought us some time by promising them I would meet with you.
Before leaving Liberia, I presented my diplomatic credentials to the new President Charles Taylor. If you remember, he was the overall commander of Liberian forces during the British incursion of “67.” I expressed the British and French concerns. He replied that Liberia has been populating the area for the past six-years without protest and previously annexed much of the area before the discoveries. He indicated that Liberia could accommodate individual foreign miners, but would not tolerate foreign corporations exploiting the resources.
Secretary of State Garfield asked: “Can Liberia withstand the British and French pressure”?
Smyth replied: “Their army is undoubtedly the strongest native army on the continent. The commanding officer is Major General Obadiah Driver. He is the one who led their ground forces at the Battle of Amina. He pulled off a double-envelopment of the British Army, forcing its surrender.
Their senior officers are professionals, seasoned in battle. Many of their junior officers are West Point graduates. President Grant opened the Academy enrollment to Liberians in “72.” Both of General Driver’s sons are West Point Graduates. Before entering politics, General Taylor established The East Point Military Academy in Liberia; and modeled it after West Point. Liberia has hired many former West Point instructors. General Driver has continued that policy, plus some of his veteran officers are also instructors.
However, the fortifications at Fort Monroe and Fort Clay are obsolete. The existing Parrot Rifles are ineffective against modern warships, and naval gunnery has surpassed the Parrot Rifles in range and accuracy. These fortifications would not survive a naval bombardment.”
Edwards then asked: “Do they have other military resources”?
Smyth answered: “They have a small Navy. Their naval assets are primarily for coastal defense. We sold them, five Canonicus Monitors in 1870. The upgrades to these vessels included a new turret with twin eight-inch long guns. Two of the upgraded Canonicus Monitors are guarding the entrance to Lake Piso and Bomi. The other three are protecting Monrovia. Their eight-inch guns could defend against cruisers but would have minimal effectiveness against battleships.
With our help, they converted the former HMS, now LRS Glorious to a twin turreted monitor similar to our Agamenticus class warships. Like the Agamenticus Class ships, LRS Glorious has two turrets, each with twin eleven-inch long guns.” She is patrolling the West Africa coast to guard against persistent pirate raids on their commercial shipping. Her officers are former United States Navy personnel who moved to Liberia for financial gain. Coincidentally, there has been frequent cooperation with both the Royal Navy and French Navy in raiding pirate bases. LRS Glorious’s long guns reduce the pirate strongholds, while Royal Navy and French Marines force their landings.”
Garfield then spoke up. “There is a pathway open for negotiations between the Liberians, the British and the French. There are mutual advantages for all three nations. The European powers are involved in significant colonialization of Africa. Liberia will need our support to stay independent. If we offer our services to facilitate an agreement, we could prevent a war in West Africa. The British and the French are unlikely to press for a forced agreement if they know we are involved.”
Then looking at President Blaine, he continued: Mr. President, I suggest we send cables to both the British and French governments, expressing our growing concern regarding their implied threats of serious consequences directed at Liberia. I will suggest a conference be scheduled here in Washington DC, or at a neutral capital city of their choice. Negotiations, not war should settle this issue. President Blaine agreed, and John Smyth excused himself from the meeting. Secretary of the Navy Perry then was introduced and entered.
The next order of business was Peru’s offer to lease Chimbote Bay to the United States. Peru and Bolivia recently suffered defeat by Chile and Argentina in the War of the Pacific. Both Peru and Bolivia lost substantial portions of their territory. Bolivia lost their western provinces and access to the Pacific Ocean. Peru, fearing their southern neighbor, sought a close alliance with the United States. Leasing Chimbote Bay to the United States would form such an alliance.
Rumors of lease proposal leaked out to Chile, which took action. First, the Chilian Ambassador to the United States protested, citing the presence of a United States Naval base in Peru was a direct threat to their sovereignty. Second, t
hey dispatched 750 marines to occupy the bay, which was a fishing village and expelled the small population.
Informed of the occupation of Chimbote Bay, the United States warned Chile to leave or face the consequences. Secure in their dominant position in South America, and with the support of their ally Argentina, Chile refused. The Chilian government was confident that the United States would be reluctant to go to war for so little, and so far from their shores.
With diplomacy at a standstill, President Blaine ordered a military response. Blaine ordered the dispatch of Admiral Lee and his fleet, now including the USS Indiana as his flagship south towards Argentina. His mission was to intimidate the Argentines into neutrality, then steam around Cape Horn into the Pacific.
Admiral Kincaid’s instructions were to lead his six Puritan Class Monitors south from San Francisco and expel the Chilian Naval task force and Marines from Chimbote Bay. The hope was that the show of force would cause the Chilians to retreat. If the Chilians chose war, they would suffer the consequences.
World Power Page 18