74‘Aggrandizer’s Anniversary’, Time magazine, 1 May 1939.
75Roger Moorhouse, ‘Germania: Hitler’s Dream Capital’, History Today, 62, issue 3 (March 2012); Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 69.
76Goebbels, Tagebücher 1924–1945, pp. 1319–20; Sebastian Haffner, The Meaning of Hitler, London: Phoenix Press, 1979, p. 34; Kershaw, Hitler: Nemesis, p. 184.
77Klemperer, I Will Bear Witness, p. 305; Deutschland-Berichte der Sopade, 1938, pp. 406–7; Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 148.
78Deutschland-Berichte der Sopade, 1939, p. 450; BArch, R43II/963, 15 Feb. 1939, p. 56.
79Deutschland-Berichte der Sopade, 1938, pp. 1056–7.
80Deutschland-Berichte der Sopade, 1939, p. 442.
81Evans, The Third Reich in Power, p. 704.
82Shirer, Berlin Diary, p. 201; Hoffman, Hitler Was My Friend, p. 115.
83Hoffman, Hitler Was My Friend, p. 115.
84Shirer, Berlin Diary, p. 205; Klemperer, I Will Bear Witness, p. 315; C. W. Guillebaud, ‘How Germany Finances The War’, Spectator, 29 December 1939, p. 8.
85Shirer, Berlin Diary, p. 241.
86Ibid., p. 320.
87Shirer, Berlin Diary, p. 336; Goebbels, Tagebücher 1924–1945, p. 1450; Hitler’s instructions are in BArch, R55/20007, July 1940, pp. 8–9; see also Stephen G. Fritz, Ostkrieg: Hitler’s War of Extermination in the East, Lexington, KT: University Press of Kentucky, 2011, p. 31.
88Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich at War, London: Penguin, 2009, pp. 136–8.
89Shirer, Berlin Diary, pp. 454–5.
90Ernst Hanfstaengl, his publicist in the United States, repeatedly mentioned Hitler’s lack of strategic vision when it came to the United States; see Hanfstaengl, Unheard Witness, pp. 37 and 66.
91Evans, The Third Reich at War, p. 424.
92Ibid., p. 507; Schroeder, Er war mein Chef, pp. 74–5.
93Bramsted, Goebbels and the National Socialist Propaganda 1925–1945, pp. 223–4.
94Evans, The Third Reich at War, pp. 421–2.
95Ibid., pp. 422–3; Ulrich von Hassell, The von Hassell Diaries: The Story of the Forces against Hitler inside Germany, 1938–1945, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994, p. 304.
96BArch, NS18/842, 17 July 1942, p. 38.
97Hoffmann, Hitler Was My Friend, p. 227; Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 473.
98Evans, The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945, p. 714; Klemperer, To the Bitter End, p. 387.
99Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 473.
100Evans, The Third Reich at War, p. 732; Hans J. Mallaquoi, Destined to Witness: Growing up Black in Nazi Germany, New York: HarperCollins, 2001, p. 251; Klemperer, To the Bitter End, p. 458; see also Joachim C. Fest, Hitler, Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2002, pp. 753–4.
101Antony Beevor, The Fall of Berlin 1945, London: Penguin Books, 2002, p. 415.
CHAPTER 3 STALIN
1Henri Béraud, Ce que j’ai vu à Moscou, Paris: Les Editions de France, 1925, pp. 46–7.
2Richard Pipes, The Russian Revolution, New York: Vintage Books, 1991, pp. 808–12.
3Ibid., p. 814.
4Ibid., p. 815.
5Robert Service, Stalin: A Biography, Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2004, p. 132; Eugene Lyons, Stalin: Czar of all the Russians, New York: J. B. Lippincott, 1940, p. 287; Stephen Kotkin, Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928, New York: Penguin Press, 2014, p. 424.
6Kotkin, Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, p. 534.
7Fernand Corcos, Une visite à la Russie nouvelle, Paris: Editions Montaigne, 1930, pp. 404–5; Benno Ennker, ‘The Origins and Intentions of the Lenin Cult’ in Ian D. Thatcher (ed.), Regime and Society in Twentieth-Century Russia, Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1999, pp. 125–6.
8Alexei Yurchak, ‘Bodies of Lenin: The Hidden Science of Communist Sovereignty’, Representations, no. 129 (Winter 2015), pp. 116–57; Béraud, Ce que j’ai vu à Moscou, p. 45.
9Kotkin, Stalin, p. 543; Robert H. McNeal, Stalin: Man and Rule, New York: New York University Press, 1988, pp. 90–93.
10Service, Stalin, pp. 223–4.
11For instance RGASPI, 17 Oct. 1925, 558-11-1158, doc. 59, p. 77.
12‘Stalin’s Word’, Time magazine, 27 April 1925.
13Kotkin, Stalin, p. 648.
14Eugene Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, London: George G. Harrap, 1938, p. 173; Service, Stalin, p. 259.
15Alexander Trachtenberg, The History of May Day, New York: International Pamphlets, 1931.
16Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, pp. 102–3.
17Service, Stalin, pp. 265–7.
18Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, pp. 206–7; Pravda, in a special issue on the Stalin Jubilee published on 21 December 1929, hailed Stalin as the ‘true inheritor’ of Marx and Lenin and the ‘leader’ of the proletarian party: RGASPI, 558-11-1352, 21 Dec. 1929, doc. 8; see also Jeffrey Brooks, Thank You, Comrade Stalin!: Soviet Public Culture from Revolution to Cold War, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000, pp. 60–61.
19RGASPI, 558-11-1352, doc. 1, 19 Dec. 1929; see also ‘Stalin’, The Life of Stalin: A Symposium, London: Modern Books Limited, 1930, pp. 12–14.
20Lazar Kaganovich, ‘Stalin and the Party’; Sergo Ordzhonikidze, ‘The “Diehard” Bolshvik’, both reproduced in The Life of Stalin, pp. 40 and 87–9.
21Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, pp. 265–6; on posters in 1929 see James L. Heizer, ‘The Cult of Stalin, 1929–1939’, doctoral dissertation, University of Kentucky, 1977, p. 55 quoted in Sarah Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia: Terror, Propaganda and Dissent, 1934–1941, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 147.
22The expression ‘victor with a grudge’ comes from Stephen Kotkin’s astute analysis in Stalin, pp. 474 and 591; Kotkin, however, does not believe that the Testament was genuinely the work of Lenin.
23Leon Trotsky, My Life, New York: Charles Scribner, 1930, pp. 309, 378 and 398.
24Avel Yenukidze, ‘Leaves from my Reminiscences’ in The Life of Stalin, pp. 90–96.
25Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, pp. 381–91; ‘Russia: Stalin Laughs!’, Time magazine, 1 Dec. 1930.
26‘Soso was Good’, Time magazine, 8 Dec. 1930.
27See Stanley Weintraub, ‘GBS and the Despots’, Times Literary Supplement, 22 Aug. 2011.
28Emil Ludwig, Nine Etched from Life, New York: Robert McBride, p. 348; the vetting of Barbusse is recounted by Michael David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment: Cultural Diplomacy and Western Visitors to the Soviet Union, 1921–1941, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 231–2, as well as Jan Plamper, The Stalin Cult: A Study in the Alchemy of Power, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012, p. 133; neither mention the financial transactions that took place, which can be found in RGASPI, 558-11-699, 12 Oct. 1933, doc. 6, pp. 53–4; André Gide, ‘Retouches à mon “Retour de l’URSS”’ in Souvenirs et Voyages, Paris: Gallimard, 2001, pp. 803−71, quoted in Andrew Sobanet, ‘Henri Barbusse, Official Biographer of Joseph Stalin’, French Cultural Studies, 24, no. 4 (Nov. 2013), p. 368; on other foreign writers approached by Stalin for a biography, see Roy Medvedev, ‘New Pages from the Political Biography of Stalin’ in Robert C. Tucker (ed.), Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, p. 207, note 9.
29Henri Barbusse, Stalin: A New World seen through One Man, London: John Lane, 1935, pp. viii and 291.
30On this, see, among others, David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment.
31Emil Ludwig, Three Portraits: Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1940, p. 104.
32Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, pp. 340–42.
33The statues were noted by Corcos, Une Visite à la Russie Nouvelle, p. 117, and in the countryside by Malcolm Muggeridge, box 2, Hoover Institution Archives, ‘Russia, 16.9.1932-29.1.1933’, p. 125.
34Service, Stalin, pp. 312–13 and 360.
35Richard Pipes, Communism: A History of the Intellectual and Political Movement, London: Phoenix Press, p. 66.
36On ‘
little Stalins’ see Malte Rolf, ‘Working towards the Centre: Leader Cults and Spatial Politics’ in Apor Balázs, Jan C. Behrends, Polly Jones and E. A. Rees (eds), The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships: Stalin and the Eastern Bloc, Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004, p. 152; E. A. Rees, ‘Leader Cults: Varieties, Preconditions and Functions’ in Balázs et al., The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships, p. 10; Sheila Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism. Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 30–31; Rumiantsev called Stalin a genius in February 1934, see XVII s’ezd Vsesojuznoj Kommunisticheskoj Partii, 26 janvarja – 10 fevralja 1934, Moscow: Partizdat, 1934, p. 143; on his cult see Jörg Baberowski, Scorched Earth: Stalin’s Reign of Terror, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016, pp. 224–7.
37Larissa Vasilieva, Kremlin Wives, New York: Arcade Publishing, 1992, pp. 122–4.
38Brooks, Thank You, Comrade Stalin!, p. 106; John Brown, I Saw for Myself, London: Selwyn and Blount, 1935, p. 260.
39Malte Rolf, ‘A Hall of Mirrors: Sovietizing Culture under Stalinism’, Slavic Review, 68, no. 3 (Fall 2009), p. 601.
40Lyons, Stalin, p. 215.
41Rolf, ‘A Hall of Mirrors’, p. 610; Anita Pisch, ‘The Personality Cult of Stalin in Soviet Posters, 1929–1953: Archetypes, Inventions and Fabrications’, doctoral dissertation, Australian National University, 2014, p. 135.
42Brooks, Thank You, Comrade Stalin!, pp. 69–77; Pisch, ‘The Personality Cult of Stalin in Soviet Posters’, p. 69.
43The encounter between Avdeenko and Mekhlis is in Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia, p. 149; the broadcast is reported in Eugene Lyons, ‘Dictators into Gods’, American Mercury, March 1939, p. 268.
44Lyons, ‘Dictators into Gods’, p. 269.
45Nadezhda Mandelstam, Hope against Hope: A Memoir, New York: Atheneum, 1983, p. 420; RGASPI, 558-11-1479, doc. 36, pp. 54–6.
46Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, New York: Knopf, 2004, p. 164; SSSR. Sezd Sovetov (chrezvychajnyj) (8). Stenograficheskij otchet, 25 nojabrja – 5 dekabrja 1936 g., Moscow: CIK SSSR, 1936, p. 208; Sergo Ordzhonikidze, Izbrannye stat’i i rechi, 1918–1937, Moscow: Ogiz, 1945, p. 240.
47David Brandenberger, ‘Stalin as Symbol: A Case Study of the Personality Cult and its Construction’ in Sarah Davies and James Harris (eds), Stalin: A New History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 249−70; see also the classic David King, The Commissar Vanishes: The Falsification of Photographs and Art in Stalin’s Russia, New York: Metropolitan Books, 1997.
48Kees Boterbloem, The Life and Times of Andrei Zhdanov, 1896–1948, Montreal: McGill-Queen’s Press, 2004, pp. 176–7 and 215.
49RGASPI, 558-11-1354, 20 Nov. 1939, pp. 29–34; all the letters are in document 21.
50The request from the Museum of the Revolution is in RGASPI, 558-11-1354, 29 July 1940, document 15, the list of gifts put on display in document 15.
51‘Foreign Statesmen Greet Stalin on 60th Birthday’, Moscow News, 1 Jan. 1940.
52Andrew Nagorski, The Greatest Battle: Stalin, Hitler, and the Desperate Struggle for Moscow that Changed the Course of World War II, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008, pp. 16–17.
53Service, Stalin, p. 403; see also David Glantz, Stumbling Colossus: The Red Army on the Eve of World War, Lawrence, KA: University Press of Kansas, 1998.
54Service, Stalin, p. 409.
55Anna Louise Strong, quoting a report from Erskine Caldwell in her The Soviets Expected It, New York: The Dial Press, 1942, p. 39; Alexander Werth, Russia at War, 1941–1945: A History, New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2011, p. 165.
56Victoria E. Bonnell, Iconography of Power: Soviet Political Posters Under Lenin and Stalin, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998, p. 252; Service, Stalin, p. 451; Richard E. Lauterbach, These Are the Russians, New York: Harper, 1944, p. 101.
57Werth, Russia at War, p. 595; John Barber, ‘The Image of Stalin in Soviet Propaganda and Public Opinion during World War 2’ in John Garrard and Carol Garrard (eds), World War 2 and the Soviet People, New York: St Martin’s Press, 1990, p. 43.
58Plamper, The Stalin Cult, p. 54.
59Michael Neiberg, Potsdam: The End of World War II and the Remaking of Europe, New York: Basic Books, 2015, p. 58; Paul Hollander, Political Pilgrims: Western Intellectuals in Search of the Good Society, London: Routledge, 2017, p. 1; Kimberly Hupp, ‘“Uncle Joe”: What Americans thought of Joseph Stalin before and after World War II’, doctoral dissertation, University of Toledo, 2009.
60Mandelstam, Hope against Hope, p. 345.
61Casualty figures in Timothy C. Dowling (ed.), Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, vol. 1, 2015, p. 172; Richard Overy, Russia’s War: A History of the Soviet Effort: 1941–1945, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1997, p. 291; Catherine Merridale, Ivan’s War: The Red Army 1939–45, London: Faber and Faber, 2005, p. 3.
62Werth, Russia at War, p. 369.
63Merridale, Ivan’s War, pp. 67, 117–18 and 136; Beevor, The Fall of Berlin 1945, p. 424.
64Beevor, The Fall of Berlin 1945, p. 107.
65Isaac Deutscher, Stalin: A Political Biography, New York: Vintage Books, 1949, p. 466; Beevor, The Fall of Berlin 1945, pp. 425–6.
66Service, Stalin, p. 543; Brandenburg, ‘Stalin as Symbol’, pp. 265–70; Iosif Vissarionovich Stalin. Kratkaya biografiya, Moscow: OGIZ, 1947, pp. 182–222.
67Service, Stalin, pp. 508 and 564.
68Anne Applebaum, Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944–1956, New York: Doubleday, 2012; Jan C. Behrends, ‘Exporting the Leader: The Stalin Cult in Poland and East Germany (1944/45–1956)’ in Balázs et al., The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships, pp. 161–78.
69‘Mr. Stalin 70 Today, World Peace Prizes Inaugurated’, The Times, 21 Dec. 1949, p. 4; ‘Flags And Lights For Mr. Stalin Birthday Scenes in Moscow’, The Times, 22 Dec. 1949, p. 4.
70RGASPI, 558-4-596, 1950; see also McNeal, Stalin, pp. 291–2.
71RGASPI, 558-11-1379, doc. 2 and 4; see also list dated 22 April 1950 in RGASPI, 558-11-1420; RGASPI, 558-4-596, 1950.
72Service, Stalin, p. 548; Overy, Russia’s War, pp. 288 and 302; Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism, New York: Knopf, 1972, p. 508.
73Harrison E. Salisbury, ‘The Days of Stalin’s Death’, New York Times, 17 April 1983; Brooks, Thank You, Comrade Stalin!, p. 237.
CHAPTER 4 MAO ZEDONG
1On Mao’s trip to Moscow, see Paul Wingrove, ‘Mao in Moscow, 1949–50: Some New Archival Evidence’, Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 11, no. 4 (Dec. 1995), pp. 309–34; David Wolff, ‘“One Finger’s Worth of Historical Events”: New Russian and Chinese Evidence on the Sino-Soviet Alliance and Split, 1948–1959’, Cold War International History Project Bulletin, Working Paper no. 30 (Aug. 2002), pp. 1–74; Sergey Radchenko and David Wolff, ‘To the Summit via Proxy-Summits: New Evidence from Soviet and Chinese Archives on Mao’s Long March to Moscow, 1949’, Cold War International History Project Bulletin, no. 16 (Winter 2008), pp. 105–82.
2New York Times, 15 May 1927.
3Mao Zedong, ‘Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement In Hunan’, March 1927, Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1965, vol. 1, pp. 23–4.
4Alexander V. Pantsov and Steven I. Levine, Mao: The Real Story, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012, pp. 206, 242 and 248.
5Mao Zedong, ‘On Tactics against Japanese Imperialism’, 27 Dec. 1935, translated in Stuart Schram, Mao’s Road To Power: Revolutionary Writings, 1912–49, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999, vol. 5, p. 92.
6Alvin D. Coox, Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia 1939, Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1988, p. 93.
7Yang Kuisong, Mao Zedong yu Mosike de enen yuanyuan (Mao and Moscow), Nanchang: Jiangxi renmin chubanshe, 1999, p. 21; Pantsov and Levine, Mao, p. 293.
8Jung Chang and Jon Hal
liday, Mao: The Unknown Story, London: Jonathan Cape, 2005, p. 192.
9Edgar Snow, Red Star over China: The Classic Account of the Birth of Chinese Communism, New York: Grove Press, 1994, p. 92.
10Lee Feigon, Mao: A Reinterpretation, Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2002, pp. 67–9.
11Feigon, Mao, p. 67; Robert M. Farnsworth, From Vagabond to Journalist: Edgar Snow in Asia, 1928–1941, Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1996, p. 222.
12Pantsov and Levine, Mao, p. 296.
13Jay Taylor, The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009, p. 169.
14Pantsov and Levine, Mao, p. 324.
15RGASPI, 17-170-128a, Georgii Dimitrov, Report to Stalin on the Sixth Plenum of the Central Committee of the CCP, 21 April 1939, pp. 1–3; see also report by Dmitrii Manuilsky on pp. 14–43.
16Pantsov and Levine, Mao, p. 331; Arthur A. Cohen, The Communism of Mao Tse-tung, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964, pp. 93–5.
17Gao Hua, Hong taiyang shi zenyang shengqi de. Yan’an zhengfeng yundong de lailong qumai (How did the red sun rise over Yan’an? A history of the Rectification Movement), Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 2000, p. 580.
18Gao, Hong taiyang shi zenyang shengqi de, p. 530; see also Chen Yung-fa, Yan’an de yinying (Yan’an’s Shadow), Taipei: Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, 1990.
19Gao, Hong taiyang shi zenyang shengqi de, p. 593.
20Gao Wenqian, Zhou Enlai: The Last Perfect Revolutionary, New York: PublicAffairs, 2007, p. 88.
21Raymond F. Wylie, The Emergence of Maoism: Mao Tse-tung, Ch’en Po-ta, and the Search for Chinese Theory, 1935–1945, Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1980, pp. 205–6; Gao, Hong taiyang shi zenyang shengqi de, pp. 607–9; Li Jihua, ‘Dui Mao Zedong geren chongbai de zisheng’ (The propagation of Mao’s cult of personality), Yanhuang chunqiu, no. 3 (March 2010), pp. 40–45; Theodore H. White and Annalee Jacoby, Thunder out of China, London: Victor Gollanz, 1947, p. 217.
22PRO, FO 371/35777, 1 Feb. 1943, p. 21.
23Stuart R. Schram, ‘Party Leader or True Ruler? Foundations and Significance of Mao Zedong’s Personal Power’ in Stuart R. Schram (ed.), Foundations and Limits of State Power in China, London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1987, p. 213.
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