by The New Big Book of U S Presidents (2020) (retail) (epub)
Immigration
Between 1885 and 1917, nearly 18 million immigrants from Central and Southeastern Europe moved into America’s largest cities. Although many of these immigrants could not speak English, they found work in America’s numerous factories and helped make the United States a powerful and prosperous nation. Because they often received low wages for hard work, many of these immigrants joined labor unions, making organizations like the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Workers stronger than ever.
1889
September 4, 1886
Geronimo, the last Native American chief to surrender, is sent to a Florida reservation.
October 28, 1886
President Cleveland dedicates the Statue of Liberty.
May 15, 1888
The Equal Rights Party meets in Iowa to advance women’s rights.
Susan B. Anthony,
women’s rights advocate
BENJAMIN HARRISON
Republican, 1889–1893
Benjamin Harrison was a member of one of the most politically distinguished families in American history: his great-grandfather signed the Declaration of Independence, his grandfather served as president, and his father sat in the U.S. Senate. Uninterested in changing the basic structure of American society, Harrison was an inactive president and as a result is often forgotten.
Benjamin Harrison grew up on a 2,000-acre estate with his 8 siblings. As a boy, Harrison was an excellent student, and he graduated from Ohio’s Miami University in 1852. After graduation, he moved to Indianapolis, Indiana and became a successful lawyer. In 1860, Harrison was elected to the Indiana Supreme Court.
Determined to make a name for himself, Harrison joined the Union Army in 1862 and fought bravely while serving in General William T. Sherman’s Georgia campaign of 1864. After the war, Harrison left the army and in 1881 won a seat in the U.S. Senate. Losing his bid for re-election in 1887, Harrison left the Senate only to win the Republican party’s nomination for president one year later.
After narrowly defeating Grover Cleveland in the election of 1888, Harrison proclaimed that the president should be a passive figure. As a result, he let Congress lead the government, asserting himself only in extreme circumstances. However, he helped secure passage of the McKinley Tariff Bill, which protected American businesses from foreign competition. He also allowed Secretary of State James G. Blaine to organize an international conference designed to promote unity within the Western Hemisphere and oversaw the admission of North and South Dakota, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, and Washington into the United States.
Harrison did not have a temperament suited for the presidency. His desire to be dignified and proper at all times caused others to consider him unfriendly and made it hard for him to work with Congress. Indeed, Harrison’s coolness to others caused people to label him “the Human Iceberg.” When his wife’s health failed during his campaign for re-election in 1892, he lost in interest in the presidency and willingly retired to Indianapolis.
The Great Land Rush
Anxious to settle the American West, the U.S. government opened the Oklahoma Territory to white settlers on April 22, 1889. More than 50,000 people raced to obtain parts of this territory, and, after only a few hours, they had claimed nearly 2 million acres. Earning the nickname “sooners” for their eagerness, these settlers quickly helped develop urban areas, such as Guthrie City and Oklahoma City. Pleased with this process, the U.S. government organized several more settlement drives over the next few years and thereby strengthened its hold on the American frontier.
Born: August 20, 1833
Died: March 13, 1901
Birthplace: North Bend, OH
V.P.: Levi P. Morton
First Lady: Caroline Lavinia Scott
• First president with electricity in the White House
• Called the “Pious Moonlight Dude” for his romantic ways
Wounded Knee
On December 29, 1890, 400 American soldiers surrounded 200 Sioux Indians near Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota. Led by Chief Big Foot and supported by Sitting Bull, these Native Americans had abandoned their government-assigned reservation so they could live according to their own customs. Because this group predicted white people would vanish from the earth, U.S. soldiers considered them dangerous. Thus, when a single warrior failed to surrender his weapon, the American soldiers killed virtually every Sioux, including women and children. The tragedy at Wounded Knee not only ended the Indian Wars, it marked the end of traditional Native American life.
1889
December 6, 1889
Jefferson Davis, the former president of the Confederacy, dies.
June 29, 1890
Henry Cabot Lodge sponsors the Force Bill proposing to protect African Americans seeking the vote.
September 25, 1890
Congress creates Yosemite Park.
January 29, 1896
X-rays are first used to treat breast cancer in the United States.
April 23, 1896
The first moving picture shows in public.
WILLIAM MCKINLEY
Republican, 1897–1901
Ahandsome man known for his piercing stare and love of cigars, William McKinley ushered the United States into the age of imperialism. Although McKinley intended to focus on domestic affairs during his presidency, his decision to declare war on Spain and then take control of its former empire made America a recognized world power. McKinley’s actions also made the presidency a more powerful office than ever before.
William McKinley was born into a prosperous family involved in the iron-manufacturing business. He briefly attended Pennsylvania’s Allegheny College before becoming a country schoolteacher. When the Civil War began, McKinley enlisted in the Union Army as a private and eventually attained the rank of major. After the war, McKinley won a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives and focused on protecting American businesses from foreign competition.
The Republican party’s candidate for president in 1896, McKinley sought the support of businessmen while his opponent, William Jennings Bryan, appealed to the interests of farmers and workers. McKinley’s conservative message proved more persuasive with American voters, and he easily defeated Bryan.
Once in office, McKinley had to contend with growing turmoil in Cuba. By 1897, Cubans desperately wanted to free themselves from Spanish tyranny. American leaders also wanted to expel Spain from the Western Hemisphere but worried that an independent Cuba would not serve American interests. Determined to defeat Spain and control Cuba, the United States declared war on Spain in 1898 and quickly defeated Spanish forces. McKinley then approved the occupation of Cuba and the annexation of the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico. Although McKinley hoped to uplift the peoples living under American rule, many colonial subjects resented U.S. power and repeatedly rebelled against it.
The War of 1898 made McKinley a popular figure and, with the charismatic Theodore Roosevelt serving as his running mate, he easily won re-election in 1900. In September of 1901, however, Leon Czolgosz, a disgruntled anarchist, shot McKinley in Buffalo, New York. He died 8 days later, becoming America’s third president to be assassinated.
Born: January 29, 1843
Died: September 14, 1901
Birthplace: Niles, OH
V.P.: Garret A. Hobart, Theodore Roosevelt
First Lady: Ida Saxton
• Wife had epileptic seizures
• Told guards not to harm his assassin
The Open Door Policy
In September 1899, the United States attempted to change the way countries practiced foreign affairs. Secretary of State John Hay asked powerful nations to abandon their claims in China and adopt an “open door” policy that allowed all nations to receive equal treatment from the Chinese government. In 1900, England, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, and Japan agreed to respect this policy, and the United States began applying this policy to the rest of the world. Because it leveled the playing field abro
ad, the open door policy helped the United States become a world power.
Jane Addams (1869–1935)
Concerned that many people—especially immigrants—lived in squalor, Jane Addams became a leader in the American Progressive movement. In 1889, she helped found Hull House in Chicago, Illinois. Staffed by live-in social workers, Hull House offered Chicago’s poor hot meals, health care, and educational programs. Hull House employees also worked to make immigrants feel at home in the United States. In 1915, Addams expanded her political vision and founded the International League for Peace and Freedom and served as the chairperson for the International Congress of Women. Although her opposition to American involvement in World War I damaged her reputation, Addams eventually won respect for her love of peace and received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931.
1901
1896
R. F. Outcault draws the first comic strip,”The Yellow Kid.” This strip supplied the name for a dishonest form of news reporting: yellow journalism.
July 1, 1898
Teddy Roosevelt and his troops defeat the Spanish at San Juan Hill.
July 1, 1899
The Gideons begin placing bibles in American hotels.
May 14, 1900
Carrie Nation combats alcohol consumption by destroying Kansas saloons with a hatchet.
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
Republican, 1901–1909
Known as the first modern president, Theodore Roosevelt brought energy, an activist spirit, and unshakable righteousness to the presidency. Crusading with a jutting jaw and pounding fist, he enacted important domestic reforms and pushed a reluctant nation onto the center stage of world affairs.
Roosevelt was born into a wealthy New York family and grew up in an atmosphere of cultured comfort. A sickly, scrawny boy with bad eyesight, he overcame these obstacles to become a good athlete and a lifelong supporter of strenuous exercise. Before he became president, Roosevelt lived an active life, working as a cattle rancher on the Dakota frontier. Although his time in the West was brief, Roosevelt loved being a cowboy. During the Spanish-American War, he commanded a volunteer cavalry unit known as the Rough Riders. Roosevelt emerged from the war a hero and easily won the governorship of New York, arousing audiences with his passion and powerful personality.
Elevated to the presidency after the assassination of McKinley, Roosevelt greatly increased the power of the government to deal with the problems created by a modern industrial society. His domestic policies—called the Square Deal—broke up business monopolies or “trusts,” resolved labor strikes, supported land conservation, and regulated the food and drug industries. Abroad, Roosevelt significantly expanded U.S. involvement in world affairs. He believed that strong nations survived and weak ones died, and thus the United States had to struggle with other powerful nations for influence and colonies throughout the world.
When Roosevelt easily won re-election in 1904, he announced that he would not run for president again. Leaving office in 1909, he embarked on an African safari but couldn’t resist jumping back into politics. In 1912, he ran for president as the candidate of the Bull Moose (Progressive) party but lost the election. Roosevelt continued to believe in the importance of America’s role on the world stage until his death in 1919.
Big Stick Diplomacy
By the time Roosevelt became president, America had emerged as an imperial power. In foreign affairs, Roosevelt’s motto was “Speak softly and carry a big stick.” This meant combining U.S. diplomacy with displays of military power. In 1907, for example, he ordered the U.S. Navy—known as the Great White Fleet—on a world tour. Three years earlier, he had proclaimed the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, reserving for the United States the right to act as an international policeman in Latin America. Following Roosevelt’s example, American presidents would become increasingly active in world affairs.
Born: October 27, 1858
Died: January 6, 1919
Birthplace: New York, NY
V.P.: Charles W. Fairbanks
First Lady: Edith Kermit Carow
• Teddy Bears were named for him
• By visiting Panama in 1906, he became the first president to leave the continental United States
Progressivism
Roosevelt formulated his domestic policies in the midst of a broad and diverse reform movement known as Progressivism. In general, Progressives believed that government should play an important role in making society better. Some of the issues Progressives were concerned with included child labor, unsanitary industrial conditions, the conservation of natural resources, and the abuse of power by big businesses. Muckrakers—journalists like Ida Tarbell and Lincoln Steffens who wrote articles exposing corruption in both politics and business—helped rally public support for Progressive causes.
1901
December 1903
The Wright brothers take flight in a powered glider at Kitty Hawk, N.C.
1903
Pittsburgh defeats Boston in the first World Series.
1904
Construction of the Panama Canal begins.
1905
Einstein publishes theory of relativity, which introduces the equation E=mc2.
January 1906
Upton Sinclair publishes The Jungle, which leads to federal regulation of food and drugs.
October 1908
Henry Ford introduces the Model T. By 1927, half the cars in the world are Model Ts.
WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT
Republican, 1909–1913
Roosevelt’s hand-picked successor, William Howard Taft was an effective administrator but a poor politician. He found it difficult to generate enthusiasm for his programs, and he received little credit for his administration’s achievements.
Born into a prominent Cincinnati family—his father was President Grant’s attorney general—Taft graduated from Yale University and Cincinnati Law School. He embarked on a successful legal career in Ohio. Taft was not a politician, and his road to the White House ran through administrative posts. In 1900, President McKinley appointed him governor of the Philippines, where he built roads and schools, redistributed land, and gave Filipinos a say in their government. In 1903, Roosevelt made him secretary of war and then endorsed him for president. In 1908, Taft rode Roosevelt’s popularity to victory.
As president, Taft promised to continue Roosevelt’s popular progressive programs and policies. Unlike Roosevelt, however, Taft did not believe in increasing presidential powers. He was also more conservative by nature. Therefore, although Taft’s record on progressive issues such as trust-busting and conservation was generally as good as Roosevelt’s, Progressives criticized his policies. At the same time, Taft’s economic policies alienated his conservative backers. The result was a divided Republican party, which helped Democrat Woodrow Wilson win the 1912 presidential election.
Taft, like Roosevelt, wanted to increase U.S. influence abroad. Taft’s foreign policy was called “Dollar Diplomacy” because he used financial as well as military might to advance U.S. interests. Taft especially promoted U.S. investments in Latin America, occasionally using force to protect U.S. interests.
Once out of the White House, Taft returned to Yale to teach law. In 1921, he secured his lifelong dream, an appointment as chief justice of the Supreme Court. Although previously cautious in his use of power as president, he used his power as chief justice to enact judicial reform. Taft’s years as chief justice were happy ones, and he held the post until his death in 1930.
Born: September 15, 1857
Died: March 8, 1930
Birthplace: Cincinnati, OH
V.P.: James S. Sherman
First Lady: Helen Herron
• First president to throw the ceremonial first pitch of the baseball season
• The first president to have a presidential car
The Great Migration
Beginning around 1910, thousands of southern blacks moved to northern cities in search of economic opportunity. By 1
920, nearly 500,000 African Americans had left the fields of the South for urban centers like New York, Detroit, and Chicago, changing the racial geography of the nation.
The NAACP
In 1909, a group of African-American and white intellectuals formed the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), an organization dedicated to improving conditions for blacks in America. The NAACP, led by the African-American writer and sociologist W. E. B Du Bois, strongly objected to Booker T. Washington’s strategy of accommodation and compromise with whites. At the time, Washington was the most influential and admired black in the United States. In 1901, for example, President Roosevelt had invited Washington to dine with him at the White House.
1913
1908
Jack Johnson is first black man to win the world heavyweight boxing championship.
1911
Irving Berlin’s “Alexander’s Ragtime Band” popularizes ragtime music.
1912
Taft sends U.S. Marines to Nicaragua to crush a rebellion harmful to U.S. business interests.
April 15, 1912
R.M.S Titanic sinks on its voyage from England to New York after it hits an iceberg.
1913
States ratify the 16th and 17th Amendments. The 16th makes the income tax constitutional, and the 17th provides for the direct election of senators.
WOODROW WILSON
Democrat, 1913–1921
Driven by a sense of destiny and duty, Thomas Woodrow Wilson pushed a program of domestic reform and asserted U.S. leadership in building a new international order following World War I. Each presidential administration since 1920 has reflected his influence.