10. P. J. Johnes et al, 2007, ‘Land use scenarios for England and Wales: evaluation of management options to support “good ecological status” in surface freshwaters’, Soil Use and Management, vol. 23 (suppl. 1), pp. 176–94.
11. UK National Ecosystem Assessment, ‘Condition of a) riverine species, and b) riverine habitats in special areas of conservation in Wales’.
12. UK National Ecosystem Assessment, chap. 20, fig. 20.11, ‘Threats to biodiversity in Wales’, http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org/Resources/tabid/82/Default.aspx
13. Nigel Miller, vice-president of the National Farmers’ Union in Scotland, 2008, quoted in LISS Online, www.oatridge.ac.uk/documents/982
14. Emyr Jones, 26 October 2012, letter to the County Times, Powys.
15. Chap. 20, http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org/Resources/tabid/82/Default.aspx.
16. UK National Ecosystem Assessment, chap. 20, fig. 20.31.
17. Statistics for Wales, Welsh Assembly government, 2010, Farming Facts and figures, Wales.
18. UK National Ecosystem Assessment, chap. 20, fig. 20.39, ‘Imports and exports of food commodities in Wales’, http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org/Resources/tabid/82/Default.aspx
19. UK National Ecosystem Assessment, chap. 20, fig. 20.22, ‘Flood events in the River Wye from 1923 to 2003’, http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org/Resources/tabid/82/Default.aspx
20. UK National Ecosystem Assessment, chap. 13, fig. 13.14, ‘a) Long-term rainfall; and b) water balance (evapotranspiration) from the forested (Severn) and moorland (Wye) catchments at Plynlimon’, http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org/Resources/tabid/82/Default.aspx
21. UK National Ecosystem Assessment, chap. 20, http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org/Resources/tabid/82/Default.aspx
22. Ibid.
23. UK National Ecosystem Assessment, chap. 22, fig. 22.2, ‘Economic values that would arise from a change of land use from farming to multi-purpose woodland in Wales (£ per year)’, http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org/Resources/tabid/82/Default.aspx
24. Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, 2011, ‘Farm outputs–all sizes. Table B3: Hill sheep farms, 2009/2010’, http://www.aber.ac.uk/en/media/0910Iy_11d.pdf
25. DEFRA press office, 26 November 2011, by email.
26. DEFRA press office, 31 August 2011, by email.
27. Office of National Statistics, 2010, Family Spending 2010 Edition. Table A1: Components of Household Expenditure 2009, http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77–225698
28. Ibid.
29. Statistics for Wales, Agricultural Small Area Statistics for Wales, 2002 to 2010.
30. Official Journal of the European Union, 31 January 2009, ‘Council Regulation (EC) No. 73/2009 of 19 January 2009, establishing common rules for direct support schemes for farmers under the common agricultural policy and establishing certain support schemes for farmers, amending Regulations (EC) No. 1290/2005, (EC) No. 247/2006, (EC) No. 378/2007 and repealing Regulation (EC) No. 1782/2003. Annex III’, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:030:0016:0016:EN:PDF
31. Miles King, December 2010, An Investigation into Policies Affecting Europe’s Semi-Natural Grasslands, The Grasslands Trust, www.grasslands-trust.org/uploads/page/doc/European%20grasslands%20report%20phase%201%20final%281%29.pdf
32. BBC Northern Ireland, 19 October 2011, ‘Northern Ireland faces more European farm subsidy fines’, www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-15369709; Miles King, 2011, ‘Dark days return: farm subsidies drive environmental destruction’, http://milesking.wordpress.com/2011/03/09/dark-days-return-farm-subsidies-drive-environmental-destruction/; King, Europe’s Semi-Natural Grasslands.
33. European Commission, 2011, ‘Common Agricultural Policy towards 2020: Assessment of Alternative Policy Options’, http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/analysis/perspec/cap-2020/impact-assessment/full-text_en.pdf
34. Welsh Assembly government, 2010, Glastir: A Guide to Frequently Asked Questions.
35. Ibid.
36. Welsh Assembly government, 2010, Glastir Targeted Element: An Explanation of the Selection Process.
37. See http://maps.forestry.gov.uk/imf/imf.jsp?site=fcwales_ext&
38. Genesis 1, 26.
39. Charlemagne, 30 October 2008, ‘Europe’s baleful bail-outs’, http://www.economist.com/node/12510261
40. http://maps.forestry.gov.uk/imf/imf.jsp?site=fcwales_ext
41. Scottish Executive, Environment and Rural Affairs Department, 2007, ECOSSE: Estimating Carbon in Organic Soils Sequestration and Emissions, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2007/03/16170508/16
42. Scottish Executive, Environment and Rural Affairs Department, 2007, as above.
43. James Morison et al, October 2010, ‘Understanding the GHG implications of forestry on peat soils in Scotland’, Forest Research, for Forestry Commission, Scotland, http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/FCS_forestry_peat_GHG_final_Oct13_2010.pdf/$FILE/FCS_forestry_peat_GHG_final_Oct13_2010.pdf
44. European Commission, ‘Common Agricultural Policy towards 2020’.
45. Environment Agency, 2009, ‘Investing for the future: flood and coastal risk management in England’, http://knowledgehub.local.gov.uk/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=ef1cd8ec-861d-4dd4–8518-6a59fc91ee1c&groupId=5919398
46. See National Trust Wales, 2008, ‘Nature’s capital: investing in the nation’s natural assets’, www.assemblywales.org/cr-lu2_natures_capital_wales_final.pdf
47. BBC Wales, 10 June 2012, ‘Wales flooding: victims hoping for return to homes’, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-18384666; BBC Wales, 10 June 2012, ‘Flood-risk villagers return home to Pennal in Gwynedd’, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-18387520
48. Wales Rural Observatory, 2007, Population Change in Rural Wales: Social and Cultural Impacts. Research Report no. 14, www.walesruralobservatory.org.uk/reports/english/MigrationReport_Final.pdf
10. THE HUSHINGS
*1 Enclosure, the worldwide process of privatizing or in some cases nationalizing common land, excluding the people and the uses to which it had formerly been put, was consolidated and accelerated in England in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries by parliamentary Acts of Enclosure.
*2 Pillar 2 payments.
*3 This, though it shares the name of an active North American organization, was a British group, now either dormant or dead.
*4 Namely, Pillar 1 subsidies or the single farm payment.
1. Stephen Moss, 2012, Natural Childhood, The National Trust, www.nationaltrust.org.uk/servlet/file/store5/item823323/version1/Natural%20Childhood%20Brochure.pdf
2. See, for example, George Monbiot, 28 June 2010, ‘A modest proposal for tackling youth’, www.monbiot.com/2010/06/28/a-modest-proposal-for-tackling-youth/
3. Jay Griffiths, 2013, Kith: The Riddle of the Childscape, Hamish Hamilton. (I read the proof copy.)
4. George Monbiot, 1994, No Man’s Land: An Investigative Journey through Kenya and Tanzania, Macmillan, London.
5. Richard Louv, 2009, Last Child in the Woods, Atlantic Books, London.
6. Andrea Faber Taylor, Frances E. Kuo and William C. Sullivan, 2001, ‘Coping with ADD: the surprising connection to green play settings’, Environment and Behavior, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 54–77, doi: 10.1177/00139160121972864.
7. Robert Pyle, 2002, ‘Eden in a vacant lot: special places, species and kids in community of life’, in P. H. Kahn and S. R. Kellert (eds.), Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural and Evolutionary Investigations, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Cited by Aric Sigman, no date given, ‘Agricultural literacy: giving concrete children food for thought’, http://www.face-online.org.uk/resources/news/Agricultural%20Literacy.pdf
8. G. A. Lieberman and L. Hoody, 1998, ‘Closing the achievement gap: using the environment as an integrating context for learning’, Sacramento, CA, CA State Education and Environment Roundtable, 1998, www.seer.org/pages/research. Cited by Sigman, ‘Agricultural literacy’.
9. Simon Jenkins, 1 September 2011, ‘If Britain fails
to protect its heritage we’ll have nothing left but ghosts’, Guardian, http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/sep/01/britain-industrial-heritage-dylife-wales
10. William Cronon, 1995, ‘The trouble with wilderness; or, getting back to the wrong nature’, in William Cronon (ed.), Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, W. W. Norton & Co., New York, pp. 69–90.
11. R. Rasker and A. Hackman, 1996, ‘Economic development and the conservation of large carnivores’, Conservation Biology, vol. 10, pp. 991–1002.
12. S. Charnley, R. J. McLain and E. M. Donoghue, 2008, ‘Forest management policy, amenity migration and community well-being in the American West: reflections from the Northwest Forest Plan’, Human Ecology, vol. 36, pp. 743–61, doi: 10.1007/s10745-008-9192-3.
13. Kevin Cahill, 2002, Who Owns Britain, Canongate.
14. Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs, January 2011, UK response to the Commission communication and consultation: ‘The CAP towards 2020: meeting the food, natural resources and territorial challenges of the future’, http://archive.defra.gov.uk/foodfarm/policy/capreform/documents/110128-uk-cap-response.pdf
15. Elizabeth Taylor, 16 November 2012, ‘Heeding the coyote’s call: Jim Sterba on the fight with wildlife over space in the sprawl’, Chicago Tribune, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-11-16/features/ct-prj-1118-book-of-the-month-20121116_1_wild-animals-wildlife-wild-game-meat/2
16. The Institute for European Environmental Policy, cited by Rewilding Europe, 2012, Making Europe a Wilder Place, www.rewildingeurope.com/assets/uploads/Downloads/Rewilding-Europe-Brochure-2012.pdf
11. THE BEAST WITHIN (OR HOW NOT TO REWILD)
*1 Slovenia, at 20,273 square kilometres, is 98 per cent of the area of Wales, which covers 20,779 square kilometres.
†2 Slovenia, €18,000 per head in 2009.1 Wales: £14,800–equivalent at the time of writing to €17,000.2
*3 I have expanded on the account provided by Tomaž and other Slovenians I spoke to, drawing in particular on materials published by the Institute for Research of Expelled Germans.4
*4 Terra nullius, a concept formalized in Roman law, means land belonging to no one. Informem terris, a phrase that might have been coined by Tacitus, means shapeless or dismal lands.
*5 The name refers to a tundra flower, Dryas octopetala, that became common in this period.
*6 Not everyone accepts this account. Susan Hughes claims that ‘the Sheepeaters [Shosone Tukadika] as depicted in northwestern Wyoming folklore are predominantly a myth derived from the medieval wild man and an Indian stereotype passed down through colonial history . . . a permanent band of Sheepeaters in Yellowstone National Park may never have existed.’20
*7 I would question the idea that Lawrence invites us to discard rationality, on the grounds that we do not have a great deal to discard (as the work of researchers such as Jonathan Haidt and Antonio Damasio shows). What he invites us to discard, and what I think Eagleton and Bertrand Russell are talking about, is universalism. If blood and culture are allowed to outweigh the consistent application of universalist principles (in particular the golden rule), this can become a licence to trample on other people.
1. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3407.htm
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales#Economy
3. W. H. Auden, 1965, ‘Et in Arcadia Ego’.
4. Institute for Research of Expelled Germans, 2011, ‘The forced labour, imprisonment, expulsion, and emigration of the Germans of Yugoslavia’, http://expelledgermans.org/danubegermans.htm
5. Institute for Research of Expelled Germans, ‘The forced labour, imprisonment, expulsion, and emigration of the Germans of Yugoslavia’.
6. Oto Luthar (ed.), 2008, The Land Between: A History of Slovenia, Peter Lang.
7. K. Kris Hirst, 2008, ‘Lost cities of the Amazon’, National Geographic, http://archaeology.about.com/od/ancientcivilizations/ss/expedition_week_6.htm
8. Anna Roosevelt, 1989, ‘Resource management in Amazonia before the Conquest: beyond ethnographic projection’, Advances in Economic Botany, vol. 7, The New York Botanical Garden.
9. Michael J. Heckenberger et al, 2003, ‘Amazonia 1492: pristine forest or cultural parkland?’, Science, vol. 301, no. 5640, pp. 1710–14, doi: 10.1126/science.1086112; Michael J. Heckenberger et al, 2008, ‘Pre-Columbian urbanism, anthropogenic landscapes, and the future of the Amazon’, Science, vol. 321, no. 5893, pp. 1214–17, doi: 10.1126/science. 1159769.
10. Heckenberger et al, ‘Pre-Columbian urbanism’.
11. Ran Prieur, 2010, ‘Beyond civilised & primitive’, Dark Mountain, vol. 1, pp. 119–35.
12. Richard Nevle and Dennis Bird, 17 December 2008, Presentation to the American Geophysical Union, http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2008/pr-manvleaf-010709.html
13. Felisa A. Smith, 2010, ‘Methane emissions from extinct megafauna’, Nature Geoscience, 3, pp. 374–5, doi: 10.1038/ngeo877.
14. Simon Schama, 1996, Landscape and Memory, Fontana Press, London.
15. Ibid.
16. E. P. Thompson, 1977, Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act, Penguin, London.
17. Richard Leakey, quoted by George Monbiot, 1994, No Man’s Land: An Investigative Journey through Kenya and Tanzania, Macmillan, London.
18. BBC Four, 16 June 2011, Unnatural Histories, http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b011wzrc
19. Forty-Second Congress of the United States of America, 1871, Act Establishing Yellowstone National Park (1872), http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=45&page=transcript
20. Susan S. Hughes, 2000, ‘The Sheepeater Myth of Northwestern Wyoming’, Plains Anthropologist, vol. 45, no. 171, pp. 63–83.
21. Boria Sax, 1997, ‘“What is a Jewish Dog?” Konrad Lorenz and the cult of wildness’, Society and Animals, vol. 5, no. 1; Martin Brüne, 2007, ‘On human self-domestication, psychiatry, and eugenics’, Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine, vol. 2, no. 21, doi: 10.1186/1747-5341-2-21.
22. Sax, ‘“What is a Jewish Dog?’”.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
25. Terry Eagleton, 2005, The English Novel, Blackwell, Malden, MA and Oxford, UK.
26. Francis Wheen, 18 September 1996, ‘Sir Jimmy and the apeman: calling a Spode a Spode’, Guardian.
27. Kim Sengupta, 30 June 2000, ‘Death of a maverick: millionaire zoo-keeper from another era who cut a swathe through British business loses three-year fight against cancer’, Independent.
28. Alexander Chancellor, 25 November 2000, ‘John Aspinall’s unspeakable behaviour was of a kind that would have landed almost anyone else in prison, and yet, to some, he died a hero’, Guardian.
29. No author given, 30 June 2000, ‘Obituary: John Aspinall’, The Times.
30. Ros Coward, 13 February 2000, ‘Profile: John Aspinall’, Observer.
31. Martin Bright, 9 January 2005, ‘Desperate Lucan dreamt of fascist coup’, Observer.
32. Caroline Cass, 1994, Joy Adamson: Behind the Mask, FA Thorpe, Anstey.
33. Ibid.
34. Jamie Lorimer and Clemens Driessen, 2011, ‘Bovine biopolitics and the promise of monsters in the rewilding of Heck cattle’, Geoforum, in press, doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2011.09.002.
35. T. van Vuure, 2002, ‘History, morphology and ecology of the aurochs (Bos primigenius)’, Lutra, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 1–16.
36. F. W. M. Vera, 2009, ‘Large-scale nature development–the Oostvaardersplassen’, British Wildlife, vol. 20, no. 5 (special supplement), pp. 28–36.
37. Lorimer and Driessen, ‘Bovine biopolitics and the promise of monsters in the rewilding of Heck cattle’.
12. THE CONSERVATION PRISON
*1 Among those which have, in my view, been kept by conservation groups in a similar state of desolation are Kielderhead, Whitelee Moor, Butterburn Flow, Harbottle Crags, Moor House-Upper Teesdale, Dove Stone and Geltsdale in England, the Isle of Rum, Rahoy Hills, Ben Mor Coigach, Cottascarth-Rendall Moss, Birsay Moors and the Oa in Scotland, Rhinog, Cwm Idwal,
Cadair Idris, Y Berwyn and Yr Wyddfa in Wales, and Aghatirourke and Boorin in Northern Ireland.
†2 There should be no ‘successional processes from upland heath to any other community’.2
*3 ‘If we don’t abide by the criteria, we are breaking the law. We are told what the condition of the site needs to be. We’re delivering exactly what we’re obliged to do. There’s no negotiation.’
*4 Morgan Parry told me: ‘We feel that we’ve had a fair degree of flexibility . . . I think the staff involved would say that they actually have come quite a considerable distance in terms of meeting objectives other than sustaining a barren upland environment.’
†5 The rules concerning the proportion of plants that may or may not grow in these places are national interpretations of the European rules.
*6 Tree pollen dominated the fossil record until people and their livestock began clearing the forests, suggesting that the land was mostly covered by deep forest.17 Tree trunks found buried in bogs tend to be straight and unbranched, which suggests that they were competing for light with their neighbours.18 Parkland trees, by contrast, branch close to the ground. The beetles which were abundant before the human population rose are the species associated with dense forest.19 Even in previous interglacial periods, before massive or disruptive herbivores such as the mammoth, the straight-tusked elephant, the Merck’s and narrow-nosed rhinoceroses, the hippopotamus and the water buffalo became extinct in northern Europe, the most widespread vegetation was closed-canopy forest.20 Wild herbivores appear not to have been capable of creating the open landscapes Vera proposes.21 While he argues that oak and hazel cannot grow in deep forest, there is plenty of evidence suggesting that they can and did.22
†7 Clive Hambler and Susan Canney note that ‘Plagioclimax grasslands are often described as “species-rich”, when in fact they are rich in flowering plants and are otherwise species-poor.’23
*8 Despite being the main habitat for some 39% of important species, woodlands cover only about 17% of the land area of the Cairngorms. In contrast, moorland appears to support only 3% of the Cairngorms’ important species, but covers some 42% of its area.24
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