3. Nature, vol. 287, 4 September 1980, 12
4. Ibid., 12
5. Reuters, Monday 14 May 2001, 11:59 a.m. ET
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. Paul Weinzweg, co-founder of ADC, interviewed by Sharif Sakr, 21 May 2001
9. Al Hine, Marine Geologist, University of South Florida, interviewed by Sharif Sakr, 21 May 2001
10. Grenville Draper in e-mail exchange with Sharif Sakr, 24 May 2001
11. Christopher Columbus, 1484, quoted in Historie, 1571, cited in Fuson, op. cit., 185
12. Charles Duff, The Truth About Columbus, 28, Grayson and Grayson, London, 1936
13. Ibid., 116–17
14. Cited in ibid., 127
15. Cited in ibid., 123
16. Cited in ibid., 123
17. Cited in ibid., 128
18. Cited in ibid., 129
19. Ibid., 27ff
20. Robert H. Fuson, Legendary Islands of the Ocean Sea, 113 and 114, Pineapple Press Inc., Florida, 1995
21. Gregory C. Mcintosh, The Piri Reis Map of 1513, 91, The University of Georgia Press, 2000
22. Duff, op. cit., 131
23. Ibid., 127
24. Cited in ibid., 141
25. Cited in ibid., 142
26. Cited in ibid., 142
27. Ibid., 222
28. Ibid., 222
29. Ibid., 225
30. Mcintosh, op. cit., 113
31. Ibid., 91, 136
32. Ibid., discussion 135–7
33. Ibid., 91
34. Ibid., 91
35. Ibid., 137 and 136
36. Ibid., 88
37. Ibid., 113
38. Ibid., 91
39. Ibid., 115–16
40. Ibid., 115
41. Ibid., 115
42. E.g. Toscanelli
43. William Giles Nash, America: the True History of its Discovery, 37, Grant Richards Ltd, London, 1924
44. Ibid., 41–2
45. Cited in Duff, op. cit., 103–4
46. Mcintosh, op. cit., 73–4
47. John Larner, Marco Polo and the Discovery of the World, 143–4, Yale University Press, 1999
48. Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo, 207, Wordsworth Classics, 1997. Polo describes the palace of the ruler of Cipango: ‘The entire roof is covered with a plating of gold, in the same manner as we cover houses or more properly churches, with lead. The ceilings of the halls are of the same precious metal.’
49. Fuson, op. cit., see in particular pages 185ff
50. Ibid., 193
51. Ibid., 195–6
52. Ibid., 196
53. Ibid., 198
54. Ibid., 199–205
55. Ibid., 204–5
56. Ibid., 191
57. Ibid., 191
PART six: Japan, Taiwan, China
25 / The Land Beloved of the Gods
1. Donald L. Philippi, Norito: A Translation of the Ancient Japanese Ritual Prayers, 53, Princeton University Press, 1990
2. Cited in Michael Czaja, Gods of Myth and Stone, 148, Weatherhill, New York, 1974
3. Robert H. Fuson, Legendary Islands of the Ocean Sea, Pineapple Press Inc., Florida, 1995
4. ‘Akita pyramid-shaped hill built in Jomon era, experts say,’ Japan Times, Tokyo, 16 November 1993
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. Irina Zhushchikkovskaya, ‘On Early Pottery-Making in the Russian Far East’, Asian Perspectives, vol. 36, no. 2, Fall 1997, 159–74
11. Douglas Moore Kenrick, Jomon of Japan: The World’s Oldest Pottery, 5, Kegan Paul International, London, 1995
12. Matsuo Tsukuda, ‘Vegetation in Prehistoric Japan: The Last 20,000 Years’, in Windows on the Japanese Past: Studies in Archaeology and Prehistory, 12, Centre for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan, 1986
13. Information provided by Kiyoji Koita, Deputy Chairman, Prehistoric Cultural Research Council, Ena City Hall
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.; observations and measurements by the Ena Prehistory Study Group
17. Information provided by Kiyoji Koita
18. Ibid.
19. Omiwa Shrine, 7, Moiwa Jinja, Miwamachi Sakuraishi Naraken, Japan
20. Ibid., 1
21. Ibid., 1
22. Personal observation
23. Omiwa Shrine, 7–8
24. Discussed by Steve Renshaw and Saori Ihara, ‘Astronomy Amongst the Ancient Tombs and Relics in Asuka, Japan’, March 1997 (unpublished)
25. Guide to the Asuka Historical Museum, 29, Asuka Historical Museum, 1978
26. Damaged summer 2000 when the central megalith was rolled off its platform; the official story is that exceptionally heavy typhoons were to blame.
27. PNAS, 31 July 2001, cited in Reuters report, Washington, 31 July 2001
28. Washington Post, 31 July 2001
29. Betty Meggers, Clifford Evans and Emilio Estrada, Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, vol. 1, 160ff
26 / Remembrance
1. Some Japanese scholars such as Yoshiro Saji and others have considered the possibility that the myths of the Kojiki, the Fudoki and the Nihongi may have originated in the Jomon period; however, this is very much a minority view. It has not received the support of mainstream academics who habitually maintain that the myths are of Yayoi origin.
2. See New Larousse Encyclopaedia of Mythology, 403ff, Hamlyn, London, 1989, and Post Wheeler, The Sacred Scriptures of the Japanese, 393–438, Henry Schuman Inc., 1952
3. Juliet Piggott, Japanese Mythology, 26, Paul Hamlyn, London, 1969
4. Wheeler, op. cit., xviii
5. Larousse, 403. Their function was to recite ancient legends during the great Shinto festivals
6. Wheeler, op. cit., xxii; Larousse, 404
7. Wheeler, op. cit., xxii. However, it is not clear that the reciter was male. Larousse, 404, makes her female – Hieda-no-Ara, an attendant lady at the court
8. Wheeler, op. cit., xxii; Larousse, 404
9. The Kojiki: Records of Ancient Matters, Basil Hall Chamberlain (trans.), inside front cover, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Tokyo, 1993
10. Wheeler, op. cit., xxii
11. Ibid, xii
12. Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to AD 697, W. G. Aston (trans.), Charles E. Tuttle Company, Tokyo, 1998
13. Wheeler, op. cit., xxiv
14. Wheeler, op. cit., xi, xviii; Larousse, 404
15. Larousse, 404; Wheeler, op. cit., xi, xxiv-xxv
16. Larousse, 404; Wheeler, op. cit., xi, xxiv-xxvi
17. See discussion in Larousse, 404
18. Robert Graves, in his Introduction to Larousse, v
19. Ibid., v
20. Most famously Schliemann following mythical clues to discover Troy
21. The case of Immanuel Velikovsky, for example
22. Alan Dundes (ed.), The Flood Myth, 1, University of California Press, 1988
23. E.g. Matsuo Tsukuda, ‘Vegetation in Prehistoric Japan: The Last 20,000 Years’, in Windows on the Japanese Past: Studies in Archaeology and Prehistory, 12, Centre for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan, 1986, 11
24. ‘Authentic history in Japan begins only in the fifth century. Whatever is earlier than that belongs to the age of tradition, which is supposed to maintain an unbroken record for ten thousand years’, Romyn Hitchcock, Shinto, Or the Mythology of the Japanese, 489, Report of National Museum, 1891. See also 505: The imperial family claims officially to have ruled Japan ‘for 2,550 years, tracing its ancestry for still 10,000 years back …’
25. Wheeler, op. cit., 21
26. Nihongi, 32; Kojiki, 50
27. Kojiki, 51; Larousse, 407
28. Kojiki, 51
29. Nihongi, 33; Kojiki, 51
30. Nihongi, 34
31. Kojiki, 52
32. Kojiki, 52–3; Nihongi, 34–5
33. Nihongi, 35
34. Ibid., 40–41
35. An alternative in the same vein is that the myth is a metaphor for an eclipse, or reflects ‘primitive’ fears of eclipses, etc.
36. In some translations ‘myriad’ is given but presumed to be a copyist’s error for ‘evil’ – see Kojiki, 66, note 4
37. Kojiki, 63
38. The possible interaction between the increased volcanism that is known to have occurred at the end of the Ice Age and post-glacial sea-level rise is discussed in chapter 3
39. Nihongi, 49
40. Ibid., 50
41. T. E. G. Reynolds and S. C. Kanser, ‘Japan’, in O. Soffer and G. Gamble, The World at 18,000 BP, chapter 16, 227–41, Unwin Hyman, London, 1990; Y. Igarishi, ‘A lateglacial climatic reversion in Hokkaido, northeast Asia, inferred from the Larix pollen record’, Quaternary Science Reviews, vol. 15, 1996, 989–95; N. Ooi, ‘Pollen spectra from around 20,000 years ago during the Last Glacial from the Nara Basin, Japan’, The Quaternary Research (Japan), vol. 31, 1992, 203–12; N. Ooi, M. Minaki and S. Noshiro, ‘Vegetation changes around the Last Glacial Maximum and effects of the Aira-Tn Ash, at the Itai-Teragatani Site, Central Japan’, Ecological Research, vol. 5, 1990, 81–91; N. Ooi and S. Tsuji, ‘Palynological study of the Peat Sediments around the Last Glacial Maximum at Hikone, the east shore of Lake Biwa, Japan’, Journal of Phytogeography and Taxonomy, vol. 37, 1989, 37–42.
42. Ibid.
43. Nihongi, 52–2; Kojiki, 71–3
44. Nihongi, 55
45. Ibid., 10–12
46. Heaven’s Mirror
47. Nihongi, 15 and footnote 1
48. Nihongi, 15
49. Larousse, 58–60
50. Nihongi, 21; Wheeler, op. cit., 12
51. Kojiki, 32
52. See discussion of the Orpheus tale in W. K. C. Guthrie, Orpheus and Greek Religion, 2911, Princeton University Press, 1993; Persephone, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9, 307
53. Nihongi, 24; Kojiki, 38
54. Kojiki, 39; Nihongi, 24; Encyclopaedia Brittanica, Micropaedia, vol. 9, 307
55. Nihongi, 24, footnote 2
56. Muir’s Sanscrit Texts, vol. 5, 329, cited in Nihongi, 24, footnote 2
57. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8, 1012
58. Nihongi, 24
59. Ibid., 24; Kojiki, 39
60. Nihongi, 24–5
61. Ibid., 25
62. Wheeler, op. cit., 16
63. Ibid., 290–91
64. Ibid., 291
65. Ibid., 291
66. Ibid., 291
67. Ibid., 292–3
68. Ibid., 292
69. Juliet Piggott, op. cit., 123–4
70. Nihongi, 92
71. Kojiki, 145
72. Wheeler, op. cit., 425, on hunter/gatherer symbolism of Fire-Glow, Fire-Fade. Archaeology confirms that fishing and the resources of the sea played a very important role for the Jomon
73. Kojiki, 145–6
74. Ibid., 146
75. Kojiki, 146
76. Nihongi, 92
77. Ibid., 92
78. Ibid., 92
79. Kojiki, 146
80. Nihongi, 92–3
81. Ibid., 93
82. Ibid., 93
83. Ibid., 93
84. Ibid., 93
85. Ibid., 94
86. Ibid., 94
87. Ibid., 94
88. Ibid., 95
89. Kojiki, 155
90. Nihongi, 94–5
91. Ibid., 95
92. Wheeler, op. cit., 89
93. Kojiki, 147
94. Ibid., 156–7
95. Wheeler, op. cit., 425
27 /Confronting Yonaguni
1. Points 1–8 cited verbatim from Professor Kimura, Diving Survey Report for Submarine Ruins off Japan, 178
2. Points 9–12, discussions with Professor Kimura, cited in Heaven’s Mirror, 216–17
3. See his contribution to my 1998 television series, Quest for the Lost Civilization
4. See Heaven’s Mirror, 215–16
5. See Heaven’s Mirror, 217
6. Horizon, BBC2, 4 November 1999
7. Robert Schoch, Voices of the Rocks, 111–12, Harmony Books, New York, 1999
8. See ibid., 112–13; Heaven’s Mirror, 217–21
9. Schoch, op. cit., 112
10. See discussion in Heaven’s Mirror
11. Der Spiegel, 34/1999
12. Der Spiegel, 34/1999
13. www.grahamhancock.com, Articles
14. Interviewed by Tim Copestake for Underworld television series
15. TBS
16. TBS
17. Sundaresh report, see above
18. The boulder was rolled to the side, half on and half off the platform
28 / Maps of Japan and Taiwan 13,000 Years Ago?
1. In Lutz Walter (ed.), Japan: A Cartographic Vision, 2, Munich, NY, 1994
2. Robert H. Fuson, Legendary Islands of the Ocean Sea, 199, Pineapple Press Inc., Florida, 1995
3. See discussion in Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, vol. 3, 497ff, Cambridge University Press, 1979 (first published 1959)
4. See chapter 24
5. Fuson, op. cit., 196
6. Discussed above, chapter 24
7. Fuson, op. cit., 196
29 / Confronting Kerama
1. Collins English Dictionary, 953, Collins, London, 1982
2. Two prominent Maltese sites contain a combination of rock-hewn structures and free-standing megaliths – the Hypogeum of Hal Saflieni and the Borchtorff Circle at Xaghra. The latter is semi-subterranean in form, rather similar to the Centre Circle complex at Kerama
30 / The Shark at the Gate
1. Janet B. Montgomery McGovern, Among the Head Hunters of Formosa, 39, SMC Publishing Inc., Taipei, 1997 (first published 1922)
2. Ibid., 39; Robert H. Fuson, Legendary Islands of the Ocean Sea, 193, Pineapple Press Inc., Florida, 1995
3. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Micropaedia, vol. 10, 272
4. Post Wheeler, The Sacred Scriptures of the Japanese, 425, Henry Schuman Inc., 1952
5. Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to AD 697, W. G. Aston (trans.), 96, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Tokyo, 1998
6. The Kojiki: Records of Ancient Matters, Basil Hall Chamberlain (trans.), 147, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Tokyo, 1993; Wheeler, op. cit., 82
7. See discussions in chapter 26
8. Shih Chi, cited in Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, vol. 4, part 3, 551, Cambridge University Press, 1979 (first published 1959)
9. Cited in ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 550
10. Ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 15
11. Ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 549
12. Ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 548
13. Betty Meggers, Clifford Evans and Emilio Estrada, Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, vol. 1
14. See discussion in chapter 25
15. See discussion, ‘stone boat’ in chapter 25
16. Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 7, 43–4
17. Needham, op. cit., vol. 4, part 3, 549. Needham would put it further east -perhaps even as far east as the Americas – though no one knows for sure, since its location is, after all, ‘mythical’
18. Ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 549
19. Ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 551
20. E.g. see Gregory C. Mcintosh, The Piri Reis Map of 1513, 72, 115, The University of Georgia Press, 2000; Svat Soucek, Piri Reis and Turkish Map-making after Columbus, 99, The Nour Foundation in association with Oxford University Press, 1996; Fuson, op. cit., 185
21. Cited in Needham, op. cit., vol. 4, part 3, 552
22. Cited in ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 553
23. Cited in ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 553
24. Cited in ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 551
25. Cited in ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 553
26. Ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 553
27. Ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 547
28. Ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 547–8
29. Ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 547�
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30. Ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 538. An alternative translation for Bird’s-Eye map is ‘Flying Bird Calendar’; I know which I prefer!
31. Cited in Needham, op. cit., vol. 4, part 3, 538
32. Ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 539
33. Date range approximate; source: Jacques Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, 39ff, Cambridge University Press, 1999
34. Cited in Needham, op. cit., vol. 4, part 3, 539
35. Ibid., vol. 4, part 3, 547
36. Translation in Wheeler, op. cit., 40–41
37. In ibid., 40
38. Ibid., 40–41
39. And collated by Sir James Frazer in Folklore in the Old Testament, vol. 1, 225–32, Macmillan, London
40. Ibid., 225–32
41. Ibid., 225–7
42. Ibid., 227
43. See Fingerprints of the Gods, chapter 24, for Noah-type flood myths from all around the world
44. These numbers are a focus of the discussion in Giorgio de Santillana and Hertha von Dechend, Hamlet’s Mill, Nonpareil, Boston, 1992
45. Discussed at length in Fingerprints of the Gods and Heaven’s Mirror
46. Thanks to Henry H. Y. Yuang for pointing this out
Copyright ©2002 by Graham Hancock
Illustrations copyright ©2002 by David Graham
Photographs copyright ©2002 by Santha Faiia
Reinal map of 1510 copyright ©The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford.
Facsimile from Portugaliae Monumenta Cartographica, G24/B1.62 (B1) Plate (9).
Cantino Map of 1510 copyright ©The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford.
Facsimile from Portugaliae Monumenta Cartographica, G24/B1.62 (B1) Plate (5).
Pisan Chart of ca. 1290 copyright ©Bibliotèque Nationale de France
Illustration of Behaim globe, cartographic devolution of Japan, copyright ©Robert H. Fuson.
From Legendary Islands of the Ocean, 1995.
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Underworld: The Mysterious Origins of Civilization Page 100