28. Mr. Noyce has been an outstanding student: Nathaniel Frank to Grant Gale, 24 May 1950, Grant Gale Papers, GCA.
29. I was hoping something like this: Bob Noyce to Dear Family, 20 April [1950].
30. Noyce auditing at Harvard: Graduate Record, MITP; Philip Morse to H. L. Hazen, 23 Sept. 1952, MITP.
31. No thesis, no ski: Bob Noyce to Family, no date, but Ralph responded 24 Nov. 1952, DSN.
32. Professor’s mind perverted: Bob Noyce to Folks, 23 Sept. [1945], DSN. Nottingham knew no theory: Noyce to Family, 22 Oct. 1950, DSN.
33. Atoms as houses: many thanks to Jose Arreola for his cogent explanation of surface states.
34. Noyce chose to study insulators: Nottingham may have suggested insulators. One of his students, David Jeffries, had recently completed a master’s thesis indicating that quartz would lend itself well to photoelectric investigations.
35. Noyce had a hell of a time: Jose Arreola, telephone conversation with author. Noyce’s dissertation work: Robert Norton Noyce, “A Photoelectric Investigation of Surface States on Insulators,” (unpublished MIT doctoral dissertation, September, 1953).
36. Noyce’s accident and visitors: Bob Noyce to Folks, 13 Jan. 1953.
37. Philco needed me: Noyce quoted in Tekla Perry, “Famous First Jobs,” IEEE Spectrum, July 1967: 48. Noyce felt he would make a better name for himself: Noyce had clearly mentioned this motivation in his interview for the Perry, “Famous First Jobs” article, but he deleted the reference to this ambition when he edited Perry’s draft. Typescript of the “Famous First Jobs” article, IA.
38. Brief conversation: Harriet Noyce, “I Remember,” 46. Reverend Noyce’s notes from the time read, “Robert phoned about 3 o’clock Thursday afternoon August 20. ‘Would you marry us?’ I had to ask the girl’s name.” Reprinted in Don Noyce, “Candles to Computers,” 252. Bold in the original.
39. Tongue as sharp as a razor: Bob Noyce to Family, 21 May [1946?]. Sharpen our wits: Helen Bottomley quoted in Harriet Noyce to Dearest Mother, 27 Aug. 1953.
40. Little human dynamo: Helen Bottomley quoted in Harriet Noyce to Dearest Mother, 27 Aug. 1953.
41. Production lines for entertainment: Helen Bottomley quoted in Harriet Noyce to Dearest Mother, 27 Aug. 1953.
42. All one could ask for, made her own decisions: Harriet Noyce to Dearest Mother, 27 Aug. 1953.
43. Noyce wanted to be free: Harriet Noyce, “I Remember,” 36.
44. Old friends and family can slow you down: Gaylord Noyce, interview by author.
45. Feared Betty was pregnant: Penny Noyce, interview by author.
46. I felt it simply could not be: Harriet Noyce, “I Remember.” Wedding description and preparations: Don Noyce, “Candles to Computers,” 252–253; Harriet Noyce, “I Remember,” 46–47; Harriet Noyce to “Dearest Mother,” 27 August 1953; Gaylord and Dotey Noyce, personal communications, 25 Nov. 2002 and 28 Nov. 2002; and George Clark, interview by author, 23 Oct. 2002.
47. Darn: Dotey Noyce, interview by author, 24 Oct. 2002.
48. Harriet’s comments: Harriet Noyce to “Dearest Mother,” 27 Aug. 1953; Ralph Noyce quoted in Don Noyce, “Candles to Computers,” 252–253.
49. It wouldn’t have happened so soon: Harriet Noyce to Dearest Mother, 27 Aug. 1953.
50. They really say: Harriet Noyce to Dearest Mother, 27 Aug. 1953.
51. On Philco’s military work: John Paul Wolkonowicz, “The Philco Corporation: Historical Review and Strategic Analysis, 1892–1961,” unpublished master’s thesis (MIT, Management), 1981: 56; AR-82-34052, FMCA. Navy line of credit: “Philco Arranges $40,000,000 Three-Year V-Loan Credit for Defense Production,” press release, 9 Jan. 1952, AR-84-56520, Box 1, FMCA.
52. Useful member of society: David B. Smith, Philco vice president of research, quoted in “Philco Research Develops First ‘Surface-Barrier’ Transistor for Military and Civilan Uses,” Philco press release, AR-84-56520, Box 1, FMCA.
53. IRE interest in surface-barrier transistor: W. E. Bradley et al., “The Surface-Barrier Transistor, Part I–V,” Proceedings of the IRE (Dec. 1953): 1702–1753.
54. Noyce could contribute immediately: Jim Angell, interview by author; George Messenger, interview by author; Frank Keiper, interview by author.
55. Philco production innovation: J. W. Tiley, “Part II—Electrochemical Techniques for Fabrication of Surface-Barrier Transistors,” in “The Surface-Barrier Transistor, Part I–V,” Proceedings of the IRE (Dec. 1953): 1706–1708. John Tiley, who developed the process, had no formal semiconductor education. Like many of his co-workers, he was a skill engineer who learned on the job. Noyce’s first patent: #2,875,141, issued 24 Feb. 1959, filed 12 Aug. 1954. Noyce’s basic surface barrier paper: R. N. Noyce and G. C. Messenger, “Surface Barrier Transistor Theory,” 14 June 1955, courtesy George Messenger.
56. Bocciarelli description: Jim Angell, interview by author 6 June 2002. When I talked in my sleep: Noyce quoted in Tekla Perry, “Famous First Jobs.”
57. Bill Bradley description: Albert Bradley to author, 4 April 2003. White noise source: Noyce quoted in Tekla Perry, “Famous First Jobs.”
58. Very easy to talk to: George Messenger, interview by author. Difficulty dealing with slow people: Jim Angell, interview by author; George Messenger, interview by author; Frank Keiper, interview by author. Image of cartoon bubble: John Joss, interview by author.
59. Highest mechanical precision: “Philco Research Develops First ‘Surface-Barrier’ Transistor for Military and Civilian Uses,” Philco press release, AR-84-56520, Box 1, FMCA. Problems with transistor and Noyce’s work to correct them: George Messenger, interview with author, 20 May 2002; Tekla Perry, “Famous First Jobs”; Frank Keiper, interview by author.
60. Philco’s problems: Philco Annual Report, 1953–1956. By 1956, earnings were only $250,000. Philco not convinced research pays: Bob Noyce to Family, 9 March 1955.
61. Bullshit, waste and good science: Robert Noyce, interview by Herbert Kleiman, 1965, M827, SSC. Noyce’s procrastination on military compliance: Joe Chapline, communication with author, 23 March 2002.
62. Lousy job, took time away: from Perry, “Famous First Jobs.”
63. Noyce taking car: Betty Noyce to Family, Mon. [probably Spring 1955]. Bob has got to go, Billy crying at sight of suitcase: Betty Noyce to Grandmother and Mama H., Monday 22nd [1955], Adam Noyce papers, GCA. What will they think of next: Jim Angell, interview with author, 6 June 2002.
64. Noyce never talked about his wife: George Messenger, interview by author. Kept her in the back: Frank Keiper, interview by author.
65. Betty wanted a house: Betty Noyce to Family, Tuesday [probably August 1955], DSN. Too snobbish: Bob and Betty Noyce to Family, 9 March 1955, Adam Noyce papers, GCA.
66. Westinghouse offer: Betty Noyce to Folks, Nov. 1955 and Mon. AM, Adam Noyce Papers, GCA. Start thinking of a permanent site: Betty Noyce to Folks, 6 July 1955 and Monday eve [probably Aug. 1955], DSN.
67. Noyce’s statement of assets: Noyce to Col. Paul G. Armstrong, Director of Illinois Selective Service System, 26 Aug. 1955, ASB.
68. Indefinite postponement of induction: Selective Service System Postponement of Induction, 12 Dec. 1955, ASB. House decorated for Christmas: Noyce to his parents, 20 Dec. 1955. This letter was written on the train home after a visit to Wright Field to visit with the Air Force’s “transistor personnel.” Walk away: Noyce quoted in Perry, “Famous First Jobs.”
69. Shockley’s call: date is from entry labeled “Noyce,” in Record Book labeled “Jn-Fe 1956,” (also in unmarked hardbound book, page 53), Shockley Papers, 95–153, Box B2, SSC. Shockley called Noyce again on Monday 30 January. Shockley here: Gordon Moore, interview by author. Like talking to God: Noyce quoted in Reid, The Chip, 73.
Chapter 3: Apprenticeship
1. Half the worthwhile ideas: Raymond M. Warner, Jr., “Microelectronics: Its Unusual Origin and Personality,” IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 48 (Nov. 2001): 2457–2467. Warner worked in transistor de
velopment at Bell Labs through most of the 1950s. Shockley’s efforts on behalf of his wife: folder marked “JBS,” Shockley Papers, 95-153, Box B2, SSC.
2. Whole damn thing, Oh hell, Shockley, patent attorney’s findings: Michael Riordan and Lillian Hoddeson, Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1997): 145. Unless otherwise noted, sources for the description of Shockley and his work before starting his company are Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire; “Transistorized!” www.pbs.org/transistor/background1/events/nobelprize.html; and James M. Early, “Out to Murray Hill to Play: An Early History of Transistors,” IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 48 (Nov. 2001): 2468–72.
3. Divorce from Jean Shockley: Jean Shockley to Bill Shockley, 4 March 1946, in a folder marked “JBS,” Shockley Papers, 95–153, Box B2, SSC.
4. Shockley’s fundraising attempts: Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 232–233.
5. Beckman 1955 performance: Beckman Instruments Annual Report, 1954, 1955.
6. Insurance against obsolescence: Beckman Instruments Annual Report, 1955, 1956.
7. Engage promptly and vigorously: Arnold Beckman to William Shockley, 3 Sept. 1955, Shockley Papers, Accession #95–153, Box 4B, SSC. Projected sales: Terman Papers, Series III, Box 48, SSC. Payment to Bell Labs: Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 240.
8. Information on Palo Alto: Ward Winslow and the Palo Alto Historical Association, Palo Alto: A Centennial History (Palo Alto: Palo Alto Historical Association, 1993).
9. Bearing fruit trees: “Veterans—here’s your ‘Home among the Trees’” (advertisement), reprinted in Winslow, Palo Alto, 116.
10. Community of technical scholars: Terman quoted in Henry Lowood, “From Steeples of Excellence to Silicon Valley,” (Varian Associates, 1987). For more on Stanford’s and Terman’s efforts to attract industry: Rebecca Lowen, Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Margaret Pugh O’Mara, Cities of Knowledge: Cold War Science and the Search for the Next Silicon Valley (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2004), chap. 3
11. Stanford would heartily welcome, an exciting business: Frederick Terman to William Shockley, 20 Sept. 1955; Terman Papers, Series III, Box 48, SSC.
12. Playing for big stakes: Note scrawled on yellow piece of paper, Terman Papers, Series III, Box 48, SSC.
13. Mental temperature: “Secrets of the Mind,” Newsweek, 6 Dec. 1954, 72–73.
14. No substitute for superiority: Beckman Instruments Annual Report, 1955.
15. Semiconductor symposium: J. W. Faust [program chair of Semiconductor Symposium] to Shockley, no date, in folder marked “Meetings 1956,” Shockley papers, Accession 95–153, Box B2. Description of the conference: program of the Electrochemical Society’s 108th meeting, courtesy Electrochemical Society.
16. Noyce only scientist: entry dated October 10, 1955 in green memoranda notebook, Shockley Papers, Accession number 95–153, box 2B. This entry includes the comment “no other good man at Philco.” Many thanks to Ross Bassett for his technical assistance on the “punch-through” problem.
17. Is your future brighter? Entry at page 67 in unmarked hardbound book, Shockley papers, 95–153, B2.
18. All Iowans think: “Quick Thinking for Chips,” The Economist, 27 Dec. 1983. In Perry, “Famous First Jobs,” Noyce recalled that someone in his hometown once put up a sign that read “California does not exist!” in a novel effort to keep young people from moving away. Wanted to return to research: Shockley’s notes read, “Would like to live in WC [West Coast] … Leaving Philco?—management not R. [research] minded.” Entry labeled “Noyce,” in Record Book labeled “Jn–Fe 1956,” Shockley Papers, SSC. Getting that job: Noyce quoted in Reid, The Chip, 73. Wanted to see if I could stand up: Noyce, 1982 Reid interview.
19. Two-year agreement: Penny Noyce, interview by author; Phyllis Kefauver, interview by author.
20. Tennis problem: James F. Gibbons, interview with author. Throughout his life, Shockley posed this question to people.
21. Too much time on whether I liked my mother: Fairchild Founder B, interviewed by author. Line-drawing question: Harry Sello, interview with author.
22. First things first: Noyce quoted in “Quick Thinking for Chips,” The Economist, 27 Dec. 1980. Date of Noyce’s arrival: entry labeled “Noyce,” Record Book labeled Jn–Fe 1956, Shockley papers.
23. Damn steady hands: Jay Last, interview by Charlie Sporck.
24. Descriptions of Shockley scientists: author’s interviews of the subjects and Charlie Sporck’s interviews of the subjects, some of which have been excerpted in his book, Charlie Sporck, Spinoff: A Personal History of the Industry that Changed the World (Sarnac Lake Publishing, 2001).
25. Only a handful over 30: “Present Employees,” May 21, 1956, unmarked hardback book, Shockley Papers 95–153, page 81, SSC. Actually making a product: Gordon Moore, interview by Allen Chen, 9 July 1992, IA.
26. You’d do it his way: James F. Gibbons, interview by author. Gibbons recalls receiving a letter in which Shockley spelled out his ideas quite explicitly.
27. Salaries: “Payroll Projected to July 1, 1956,” unmarked hardback book, page 82, Shockley Papers, Accession #95–153, B2, SSC. Icicles: Fairchild Founder A, interview by author.
28. He hadn’t shaved: Julius Blank, interview by Charlie Sporck. Blank tells a censored version of this story in Bob Ristelhueber, “Noyce Remembered: Unusual Ideas, Unusual Approaches,” Electronic News, 11 June 1990.
29. Rose in his teeth: Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire.
30. Shockley’s early advocacy of silicon: Letter excerpted in Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 230.
31. Barbecue analogy: Reid, The Chip, 73–74. Before the invention of the diffusion method, silicon devices had been built using either grown junction techniques or alloy techniques. Shockley sent Noyce and Moore to Bell Labs seminar: Noyce, 1982 Reid interview.
32. Concern about outfitting lab: Fairchild Founder A, interview by author. Auto-parts warehouse: Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 237.
33. Description of lab space: Harry Sello, interview by author.
34. Clean vacuum-pump story: Fairchild Founder B, interview by author. In his mind: Fairchild Founder A, interview by Christophe Lecuyer on 6 July 1996. Personal communication from Lecuyer to author, 11 Nov.1999.
35. Noyce’s contributions at Shockley: Unmarked hardback book, pages 68, 71, and 81; entry dated 5 Jun 57, Empire Notebook, both in Shockley Papers, Accession #95–153, B2, SSC.
36. Quiet leadership style: R. Victor Jones, interview by author. Felt they learned more from Noyce: Fairchild Founder A, interview by author; Harry Sello, interview by author; “Dr. Moore, Tape 2, 6/8/94,” IA.
37. Noyce’s only opinion that mattered: Fairchild Founder A, interview by author; Harry Sello, interview by author.
38. Noyce’s tunnel diode: Lab book entry dated 14 Aug. 1956, inserted at the front of his Fairchild lab book. How he managed to copy these pages is unclear—photocopy technology was in its infancy in the late-1950s, and Noyce makes no note of going back to his Shockley notebooks later in his life—but that the pages are legitimate are indisputable. The only surviving notebook from Shockley Labs belonged to William Shockley and resides in the Special Collections of Stanford University. The pages on which Noyce’s ideas are written are clearly from the same type of lab book that William Shockley issued to his staff, and this fact, along with the date of Noyce’s work (which correlates with his 1979 comments about it), and Moore’s recollections of the event further validate their authenticity.
39. Balls tunneling through the wall: Professor Stig Lundqvist of the Royal Academy of Sciences used this analogy in his speech presenting the 1973 Nobel Prize to Leo Esaki, Ivar Giaever, and Brian David Josephson.
40. Boss showed no interest, powerful demotivator: Noyce, “Innovation: The Fruit of Success,” Technology Review, Feb. 1978: 24–27.
41. Esaki’s semin
al paper: Leo Esaki, “New Phenomenon in Narrow Germanium P-N Junctions, Physical Review, 1958, 109: 603. Esaki conducted his research in 1957, at roughly the same time Noyce noted his ideas. On the response to this paper: Leo Esaki, “The Global Reach of Japanese Science,” http://www.jspsusa.org/FORUM1996/esaki.html, accessed 1 Nov. 2004.
42. Similarities in Noyce and Esaki’s work: Both men used an energy-band diagram that represents the allowed energies on the y axis for electrons and holes versus their position in the P-N junction on the x axis. It shows where the electrons and holes are located. At small voltages, there are holes at the same energy as electrons, so tunneling current can flow, but at somewhat higher voltages, the electrons and holes are no longer at the same energy and the tunneling current ceases. Esaki and Noyce both also drew very similar current-versus-voltage graphs illustrating the unexpected drop in current in the region of negative resistance. If I had gone one step further: Gordon Moore, interview by author, 1 July 2004.
43. Equivalent amount of knowledge: Gordon Moore, interview by author, 1 July 2004. When Shockley asked: Michael F. Wolff, “The Genesis of the Integrated Circuit: How a Pair of U.S. Innovators Brought Into Reality a Concept that was on the Minds of Many,” IEEE Spectrum, Aug. 1976, 49. Various versions of this story exist, including an official straw poll, but Wolff writes that Noyce confirmed this version of the story, albeit “with some embarrassment.”
44. Redesign bolts: Eugene Kleiner, interview by Charlie Sporck; Jay Last quoted in Raymond M. Warner, “Microelectronics: Its Unusual Origin and Personality,” IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices (Nov. 2001): 2457–2467, at 2461. Hoerni’s “banishment”: Jean Hoerni, interview by Charlie Sporck; Jay Last, interview by Charlie Sporck; Fairchild Founders A and B, interview by author.
The Man Behind the Microchip Page 48