86. Joseph Holt and Winfield Scott to Abraham Lincoln, March 5, 1861, Abraham Lincoln Papers, Library of Congress.
87. Russell McClintock, Lincoln and the Decision for War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 232–33; David M. Potter, Lincoln and His Party in the Secession Crisis (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1942), 373–75.
88. Hudson Strode, Jefferson Davis: Confederate President (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1959), 2:40; Beauregard to Anderson, April 12, 1861, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, Series One (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1880), 1:14.
89. “Cometary Astronomy,” Danville Quarterly Review 1 (December 1861): 614, 630; “Scientific Intelligence,” American Journal of Science and Arts 32 (November 1861): 134; David Sergeant, The Greatest Comets in History: Broom Stars and Celestial Scimitars (New York: Springer Science, 2009), 141; The American Annual Cyclopaedia and Register of Important Events for the Year 1862 (New York: D. Appleton, 1862), 2:174.
1. “Sarah Butler Wister’s Civil War Diary,” ed. Fanny Kemble Wister, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 102 (July 1978): 271–77.
2. Douglas R. Harper, “If Thee Must Fight”: A Civil War History of Chester County, Pennsylvania (West Chester, PA: Chester County Historical Society, 1990), 18.
3. Alice Rains Trulock, In the Hands of Providence: Joshua L. Chamberlain and the American Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 60–61.
4. Cox, “War Preparations in the North,” in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, ed. R. U. Johnson and C. C. Buel (New York: Castle, 1956 [1887]), 1:85–86.
5. W. H. Russell, My Diary North and South, 49–51; Diary of Samuel H. Pendleton, Special Collections, University of Virginia.
6. Beauregard to Davis, April 13, 1861, The War of the Rebellion, 1:309.
7. William C. Davis, Jefferson Davis: The Man and His Hour, a Biography (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 325.
8. Lincoln, “Speech at Galena, Illinois,” July 23, 1856, in Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Roy F. Basler (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1953), 2:355.
9. The American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge, for the Year 1859 (Boston: Crosby, Nichols, 1859), 110–11.
10. John Gibbon, “Organization of United States Artillery,” United States Service Magazine, May 1, 1864; Horace Greeley, The American Conflict: A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States (Hartford, CT: O. D. Case, 1864), 1:555. Compare this level of organizational primitivism to the staff structures Helmuth von Moltke was building in Prussia at the same time; see Arden Bucholz, Moltke and the German Wars, 1864–1871 (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 32–34, 43, 50–65.
11. “An Act to Provide for Calling Forth the Militia,” February 28, 1795, in The Public Statutes at Large of the United States of America, ed. Richard Peters (Boston: Little and Brown, 1845), 1:424–25; McPherson, ed., Political History of the Rebellion, 115; Lincoln, “Message to Congress in Special Session,” July 4, 1861, in Collected Works, 4:425.
12. Philip Howes, The Catalytic Wars: A Study in the Development of Warfare, 1860–1870 (London: Minerva, 1998), 177–78; Robert S. Chamberlain, “The Northern State Militia,” Civil War History 4 (June 1958): 108–9.
13. Lincoln, “Message to Congress in Special Session,” July 4, 1861, in Collected Works, 4:437; McPherson, ed., Political History of the Rebellion, 114.
14. William Hesseltine, Lincoln and the War Governors (New York: Knopf, 1948), 154–56.
15. Jacob Dolson Cox, Military Reminiscences of the Civil War (New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1900), 1:175, 187–88.
16. Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones, How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983), 12–13; Brent Nosworthy, Roll Call to Destiny: The Soldier’s Eye View of Civil War Battles (New York: Carroll and Graf, 2008), 26–31.
17. Russell F. Weigley, The American Way of War: A History of United States Military Strategy and Policy (New York: Macmillan, 1979), 78–79; Paddy Griffith, Battle Tactics of the Civil War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), 99–111; Hew Strachan, From Waterloo to Balaclava: Tactics, Technology, and the British Army, 1815–1854 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 2–3.
18. Alexander McKay, The Western World; or, Travels in the United States in 1846–47 (London: Richard Bentley, 1850), 3:214–15.
19. Cox, Military Reminiscences, 1:179.
20. Welles, diary entry for August 17, 1862, in Diary of Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy Under Lincoln and Johnson, ed. John T. Morse (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911), 1:85; Edward Hagerman, The American Civil War and the Origins of Modern Warfare: Ideas, Organization, and Field Command (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988), 4–13.
21. E. B. Hamley, in Strachan, From Waterloo to Balaclava, 6.
22. Hattaway and Jones, How the North Won, 12–17.
23. David Clary, Eagles and Empire: The United States, Mexico, and the Struggle for a Continent (New York: Bantam Dell, 2009), 168.
24. Allan Peskin, Winfield Scott and the Profession of Arms (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2003), 249–51.
25. Hattaway and Jones, How the North Won, 9; Wayne Wei-siang Hseih, West Pointers and the Civil War: The Old Army in War and Peace (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 102.
26. Philip J. Haythornwaite, Uniforms of the Civil War, 1861–1865 (New York: Macmillan, 1976), 131–33, 175–76; Gary Shreckengost, The First Louisiana Special Battalion: Wheat’s Tigers in the Civil War (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2008).
27. Steven Newton, Joseph E. Johnston and the Defense of Richmond (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998), 32.
28. George Edgar Turner, Victory Rode the Rails: The Strategic Place of the Railroads in the Civil War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972), 45–62; William Howard Russell, Pictures of Southern Life, Social, Political and Military (New York: James G. Gregory, 1861), 86.
29. Evelyn Wood, From Midshipman to Field Marshal (London: Methuen, 1906), 1:36.
30. Walt Whitman, “Specimen Days,” in The Portable Walt Whitman, ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Viking Press, 1969), 498–501.
31. William C. Davis, Battle at Bull Run: A History of the First Major Campaign of the Civil War (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1977), 245, 253.
32. Russel H. Beatie, Army of the Potomac: Birth of Command, November 1860–September 1861 (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2002), 422, 425–27, 501–17; Adam G. de Gurowski, Diary, from March 4, 1861, to November 12, 1862 (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1862), 76; Cox, Military Reminiscences, 1:243; Stephen W. Sears, “Building the Army of the Potomac,” MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History 20 (Winter 2008): 80–81.
33. McClellan to Ellen Marcy McClellan, July 27, 1861, in The Civil War Papers of George B. McClellan, ed. Stephen W. Sears (New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1989), 70; Ethan Rafuse, McClellan’s War: The Failure of Moderation in the Struggle for the Union (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 124.
34. Lincoln, “Message to Congress in Special Session,” July 4, 1861, in Collected Works, 4:438.
35. James F. Simon, Lincoln and Chief Justice Taney: Slavery, Secession, and the President’s War Powers (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006), 177–78, 194.
36. Lincoln, “First Inaugural Address—Final Text,” March 4, 1861, and “Message to Congress in Special Session,” July 4, 1861, in Collected Works, 4:262–63, 438–39.
37. McClellan to Samuel Barlow, November 8, 1861, and to Mary Ellen McClellan, November 14, 1861, in Civil War Papers of George B. McClellan, 128, 132.
38. McClellan to E. M. Stanton, February 3, 1862, in McClellan’s Own Story: The War for the Union (New York: C. L. Webster, 1887), 234.
39. Donald Stoker, The Grand Design: Strategy and the U.S. Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 55, 58–60.
40. McClellan to Mary Ellen McClellan, August 16 and Octo
ber 10, 1861, in Civil War Papers of George B. McClellan, 85, 106.
41. Hay, diary entry for November 13, 1861, in Inside Lincoln’s White House, 32; McClellan to Mary Ellen McClellan, August 9, 1861, in Civil War Papers of George B. McClellan, 82.
42. Bates, diary entry for January 3, 1862, in The Diary of Edward Bates, 1859–1866, ed. Howard K. Beale (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1933), 220; “General M. C. Meigs on the Conduct of the Civil War,” American Historical Review 26 (1920–21): 292–93; Bruce Tap, Over Lincoln’s Shoulder: The Committee on the Conduct of the War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998), 105–6.
43. Steven S. L’Hommedieu, in Beatie, Army of the Potomac: Birth of Command, 403.
44. General War Orders No. 1, January 27, 1862, and Special War Orders No. 1, January 31, 1862, in War of the Rebellion, 5:41.
45. Stephen W. Sears, George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon (New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1988), 131, 148–49, 160–61.
46. “President’s War Order No. 3,” March 11, 1862, in War of the Rebellion, 5:54.
47. For Lincoln on “the slows,” see Recollected Words of Abraham Lincoln, 32; Rowena Reed, Combined Operations in the Civil War (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1978), 121–30.
48. Lorenzo Thomas to McClellan, April 4, 1862, in War of the Rebellion, 11(III):66.
49. “Memorandum,” May 17, 1862, in War of the Rebellion, 11(III):176–77; Newton, Joseph E. Johnston and the Defense of Richmond, 151, 168.
50. Elizabeth Brown Pryor, Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private Letters (New York: Viking, 2007), 17, 32–33, 60, 63.
51. Lee to Anne Marshall, April 20, 1861, in The Wartime Papers of Robert E. Lee, eds. Clifford Dowdey and Louis Manarin (Boston: Little, Brown, 1961), 10; Alan Nolan, Lee Considered: General Robert E. Lee and Civil War History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 40–41, 50–58.
52. Lincoln to McClellan, May 24, 1862, in War of the Rebellion, 11(I):30; Peter Cozzens, Shenandoah 1862: Stonewall Jackson’s Valley Campaign (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 344–45.
53. Matt Spruill, Echoes of Thunder: A Guide to the Seven Days Battles (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2006), 307.
54. Sears, To the Gates of Richmond: The Peninsula Campaign (New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1992), 208, 249, 294, 343–45; Clifford Dowdey, The Seven Days: The Emergence of Lee (Boston: Little, Brown, 1964), 273.
55. Daniel E. Sutherland, “Introduction to War: The Civilians of Culpeper County, Virginia,” in Civil War History 37 (June 1991): 124–25; “General Orders No. 5,” July 18, 1862, “General Orders No. 7,” July 10, 1862, “General Orders No. 11,” July 23, 1862, and “General Orders No. 13,” July 25, 1862, in War of the Rebellion, 12(II):50–52, 12(III):509.
56. Adams Hill, in Louis Starr, Bohemian Brigade: Civil War Newsmen in Action (New York: Knopf, 1954), 152.
57. “General M. C. Meigs on the Conduct of the Civil War,” 294.
58. Lee to Davis, June 5, 1862, and to Jackson, July 27, 1862, in Wartime Papers of Robert E. Lee, 183–84, 239; Joseph L. Harsh , Confederate Tide Rising: Robert E. Lee and the Making of Southern Strategy, 1861–1862 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1998), 54–60.
59. Pope, “The Second Battle of Bull Run,” Battles and Leaders, 2:489–90.
60. Stephen W. Sears, “Last Words on the Lost Order,” in Controversies and Commanders: Dispatches from the Army of the Potomac (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999), 114–15.
61. James V. Murfin, The Gleam of Bayonets: The Battle of Antietam and Robert E. Lee’s Maryland Campaign, September 1862 (New York: T. Yusoloff, 1965), 298, 303–4, 374–77.
62. “McClellan Relieved,” November 5, 1862, in War of the Rebellion, 19(11):545; Amos M. Judson, History of the Eighty-Third Regiment, Pennsylvania Volunteers (Dayton, OH: Morningside Bookshop, 1986 [1865]), 98.
63. Lincoln, “Emancipation Proclamation,” in Collected Works, 6:29.
64. Lincoln, “Annual Message to Congress,” December 1, 1862, in Collected Works, 5:537.
65. Francis B. Carpenter, Six Months at the White House with Abraham Lincoln: The Story of a Picture (New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1866), 90.
66. Lincoln, “Speech at Springfield, Illinois,” June 26, 1857, and “First Debate with Stephen A. Douglas,” August 21, 1858, in Collected Works, 2:404, 3:16.
67. Lincoln, “To Horace Greeley,” August 22, 1861, in Collected Works 5:388.
68. Hofstadter, “Abraham Lincoln and the Self-Made Myth,” in The American Political Tradition and the Men Who Made It (New York: Knopf, 1973 [1948]), 131.
69. Joseph Gillespie to W. H. Herndon, January 31, 1866, in Herndon’s Informants, 183, 197.
70. Lincoln, “Speech at Peoria, Illinois,” October 16, 1854, and “Speech to One Hundred Fortieth Indiana Regiment,” March 17, 1865, in Collected Works, 2:271, 8:361; Isaac Newton Arnold, The History of Abraham Lincoln and the Overthrow of Slavery (Chicago: Clarke, 1866), 300, 685–86; Joseph Gillespie to W. H. Herndon, December 8, 1866, in Herndon’s Informants, 507.
71. Lincoln, in Recollected Words, 206, 449.
72. Stevens, “Speech on Republican Aims,” January 25, 1860, in The Selected Papers of Thaddeus Stevens, ed. B. W. Palmer (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997), 1:165; Lovejoy, in Mitchell Snay, “The Emergence of the Republican Party in Illinois,” Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association 22 (Winter 2001): 94–95.
73. Lincoln, “To Horace Greeley,” March 24, 1862, and “To Nathaniel P. Banks,” August 5, 1863, in Collected Works, 5:169, 6:365.
74. Lincoln, “Annual Message to Congress,” December 1, 1862, in Collected Works, 5:530–31, 534; Lincoln, “First Joint Debate,” in The Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858, 105; Davis, in Recollected Words, 132, 182.
75. David Donald, Charles Sumner and the Coming of the Civil War (New York: Knopf, 1961), 388; “The Hon. C. Sumner on a War for Emancipation,” The Anti-Slavery Reporter, November 1, 1861, 246.
76. Frémont, “Emancipation Proclamation of General Fremont,” August 31, 1861, and Hunter, “General Orders No. 11,” May 9, 1862, in Political History of the Rebellion, 245–46, 250.
77. “The Contrabands at Fortress Monroe,” Atlantic Monthly 8 (November 1861): 626–27; Robert F. Engs, Freedom’s First Generation: Black Hampton, Virginia, 1861–1890 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), 18–22; Adam Goodheart, 1861: The Civil War Awakening (New York: Knopf, 2011), 296–338.
78. Henry Halleck, International Law; or, Rules Regulating the Intercourse of States in Peace and War (San Francisco: H. H. Bancroft, 1861), 447.
79. Trumbull, “Army Appropriations Bill,” July 15, 1861, Congressional Globe, 37th Congress, 1st Session, 120; “The Last of Congress,” New York Times, August 7, 1861.
80. Henry Wilson, History of the Antislavery Measures of the Thirty-Seventh and Thirty-Eighth United-States Congresses, 1861–1864 (Boston: Walker, Wise, 1864), 4–5; J. W. Schuckers, The Life and Public Services of Salmon Portland Chase (New York: D. Appleton, 1874), 428; Cook, William Pitt Fessenden, 146.
81. “The Emancipation Act,” Washington Sunday Morning Chronicle, April 26, 1862; Edward Everett Hale, memorandum of conversation with Sumner, April 26, 1862, in “The War,” Memories of a Hundred Years (New York: Macmillan, 1903), 2:191–92; Moncure Conway, in Recollected Words, 119.
82. “Joint Resolution Declaring That the United States Ought to Cooperate with, Affording Pecuniary Aid to Any State Which May Adopt the Gradual Abolishment of Slavery,” April 10, 1862, in The Statutes at Large Treaties, and Proclamations of the United States of America from December 5, 1859 to March 3, 1863, ed. George Sanger (Boston: Little and Brown, 1863), 617.
83. J. W. Crisfield, in Conversations with Lincoln, ed. Charles M. Segal (New York: Putnam, 1961), 165–68; Wilson, History of the Anti-Slavery Measures, 81–85.
84. Lincoln, “Appeal to Border State Representatives,” July 12, 1862, in Collected Wor
ks, 5:318–19.
85. Welles, diary entry for July 13, 1862, in Diary of Gideon Welles, 1:70; Welles, “The History of Emancipation,” in Civil War and Reconstruction: Selected Essays by Gideon Welles, ed. Albert Mordell (New York: Twayne, 1959), 237; Carpenter, Six Months at the White House, 21.
86. Frederick Douglass, “Farewell Speech to the British People,” March 30, 1847, in Selected Speeches and Writings, ed. P. S. Foner and Y. Taylor (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 1999), 58; Willie Lee Rose, Rehearsal for Reconstruction: The Port Royal Experiment (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), 12.
87. “City Items,” Christian Recorder, January 10, 1863; Douglass, “Emancipation Proclaimed,” “Rejoicing over the Proclamation,” in Douglass’ Monthly, January 1863 and February 1863.
88. Douglass, “January First 1863,” in Douglass’ Monthly, October 1862; “The Emancipation Proclamation,” Philadelphia Inquirer, January 2, 1863. See also Boston Evening Transcript, January 2, 1863; Boston Daily Advertiser, January 2 and 3, 1863; and Philadelphia Daily North American, January 2 and 5, 1863.
89. Grosvenor, “The Rights of the Nation and the Duty of Congress,” New Englander 24 (October 1865): 757; “Nemesis,” in The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, ed. Foner, 3:99.
90. Blight, Frederick Douglass’ Civil War, 138–40.
91. Gary Gallagher, “The A’Vache Tragedy,” Civil War Times Illustrated 18 (February 1980): 5–10; John Hay, diary entry for July 1, 1864, in Inside Lincoln’s White House, 217; Eaton, Grant, Lincoln and the Freed-men: Reminiscences of the Civil War (New York: Longmans, Green, 1907), 91–92.
92. Douglass, Life and Times, 347–49.
93. Rose, Rehearsal for Reconstruction, 306.
94. Douglass, “The Fall of Sumter,” Douglass’ Monthly, May 1861.
95. “The Civil War Letters of Quartermaster Sergeant John C. Brock, 43rd Regiment, United States Colored Troops,” ed. Eric Ledell Smith, in Making and Unmaking Pennsylvania’s Civil War, ed. William Blair and William Pencak (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001), 143; James G. Hollandsworth, The Louisiana Native Guards: The Black Military Experience During the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995), 12–15; Versalle F. Washington, Eagles on Their Buttons: A Black Infantry Regiment in the Civil War (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1999), 2–3; Jimerson, The Private Civil War, 92, 93.
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