The Invisible History of the Human Race

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The Invisible History of the Human Race Page 41

by Christine Kenneally


  DNA on the structure of the face: C. Attanasio, et al., “Fine Tuning of Craniofacial Morphology by Distant-Acting Enhancers,” Science 342, no. 6157 (2013): 1241006.

  reconstruction of faces from ancient remains: J. Draus-Barini, et al., “Bona Fide Colour: DNA Prediction of Human Eye and Hair Colour from Ancient and Contemporary Skeletal Remains,” Investigative Genetics 4, no. 1 (2013): 3.

  forensic police profiling: P. Claes, et al., “Modeling 3D Facial Shape from DNA,” PLoS Genetics 10, no. 3 (2014): e1004224.

  “The fact that identical twins”: Quotes from Walter Bodmer in this chapter are from my interview with him.

  the accused is of a different race: C. A. Meissner and J. C. Brigham, “Thirty Years of Investigating the Own-Race Bias in Memory for Faces: A Meta-Analytic Review,” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 7, no. 1 (2001): 3.

  African, and East Asian ancestry: Y. C. Klimentidis and M. D. Shriver, “Estimating Genetic Ancestry Proportions from Faces,” PloS ONE 4, no. 2 (2009): e4460.

  results from just such a mutation: R. M. Harding, et al., “Evidence for Variable Selective Pressures at MC1R,” American Journal of Human Genetics 66, no. 4 (2000): 1351–61; and P. R. John, et al., “DNA Polymorphism and Selection at the Melanocortin-1 Receptor Gene in Normally Pigmented Southern African Individuals,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 994, no. 1 (2003): 299–306.

  Chapter 14: The Past May Not Make You Feel Better:

  DNA, History, and Health

  286–87Cindy Carroll was in her midforties . . . to him it felt like hours: L. Priest, “‘I Know How I Am Going to Die,’” Globe and Mail, October 13, 2007, available at http://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/i-know-how-i-am-going-to-die

  /article1084238/?page=all (accessed April 24, 2014).

  called el mal or “the bad”: M. S. Okun and N. Thommi, “Americo Negrette (1924 to 2003): Diagnosing Huntington Disease in Venezuela,” Neurology 63, no. 2 (2004): 340–43.

  “strange movements, like dancing”: R. Weiser, “Huntington’s Disease: A View of Maracaibo Lake” (lecture, World Congress on Huntington’s Disease, Rio de Janeiro, September 16, 2013), available at http://vimeo.com/75658670.

  “We just learned the alphabet”: Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Jeff Carroll in this chapter are from my interview with him.

  “seem to be very close”: Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Feldman in this chapter are from my interview with him.

  up to 10 percent of all humans: A. Bittles and M. Black, “Consanguinity, Human Evolution and Complex Diseases,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, no. 1 (2010): 1779–1786.

  speculated that they must have been: G. McDowell, et al., “The Presence of Two Different Infantile Tay-Sachs Disease Mutations in a Cajun Population,” American Journal of Human Genetics 51, no. 5 (1992): 1071–77.

  three-thousand-year-old culture: When they left their homeland, they also committed to the sect’s strict practices. For example, when menstruating or after childbirth, they—along with all women—are considered unclean. They are isolated during this time and not allowed to touch anyone, even their own children, for the first seven days of a period and for forty days after the birth of a son and eighty days after the birth of a daughter.

  “women outside our community”: T. Heneghan, “Samaritans Use Modern Means to Keep Ancient Faith,” Reuters, June 2, available at http://mobile.re

  uters.com/article/idUSTRE55201720090603?irpc=932.

  “This is my wife and she is my niece”: Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Alan Bittles in this chapter are from my interview with him.

  the health of individuals today: B. M. Henn, et al., “Hunter-Gatherer Genomic Diversity Suggests a Southern African Origin for Modern Humans,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 13 (2011): 5154–62.

  Why? They don’t know: T. Manolio, et al., “Finding the Missing Heritability of Complex Diseases,” Nature 461, 7265 (2009): 747–753.

  did not experience such conditioning: B. G. Dias and K. J. Ressler, “Parental Olfactory Experience Influences Behavior and Neural Structure in Subsequent Generations,” Nature Neuroscience 17, no. 1 (2014): 89–96.

  from Greenland, was published: M. Rasmussen, et al., “Ancient Human Genome Sequence of an Extinct Palaeo-Eskimo,” Nature 463, no. 7282 (2010): 757–62.

  passed down experiences and predispositions: D. Gokhman, et al., “Reconstructing the DNA Methylation Maps of the Neandertal and the Denisovan,” Science 344, no. 6183 (2014): 523–27.

  “Huntington’s disease has been”: Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Robert Green in this chapter are from my interviews with him.

  “a disease as frightening and untreatable”: R. C. Green, et al., “Disclosure of APOE Genotype for Risk of Alzheimer’s Disease,” New England Journal of Medicine 361, no. 3 (2009): 245–54.

  “Historical research has shown that the idea”: American Anthropological Association Statement on “Race,” May 17, 1998, available at http://www

  .aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm.

  Epilogue

  decision making in India: K. R. Hoff, M. Kshetramade, and E. Fehr, “Caste and Punishment: The Legacy of Caste Culture in Norm Enforcement,” IZA Discussion Paper no. 4343, August 2009.

  “Men still didn’t like women leaders”: Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Karla Hoff in this chapter are from my interview with her.

  “information wants to be free”: S. Pinker, “My Genome, My Self,” New York Times Magazine, January 11, 2009.

  “No harm can come”: Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Steven Pinker in this chapter are from my interview with him.

  a professor at Duke University: M. Angrist, Here Is a Human Being: At the Dawn of Personal Genomics (New York: Harper Collins, 2010).

  “One thing I notice is alleles”: Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Misha Angrist in this chapter are from my interview with him.

  “It’s like learning American history”: Quotes from Esther Dyson in this chapter are from my interview with her.

  they found their families too: M. Gymrek, et al., “Identifying Personal Genomes by Surname Inference,” Science 339, no. 6117 (2013): 321–24.

  passed through a language barrier: R. M. Ross, S. J. Greenhill, and Q. D. Atkinson, “Population Structure and Cultural Geography of a Folktale in Europe,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 280, no. 1756 (2013): 2012.3065.

  whereas genes are creamy: R. Khan, “Why Culture Is Chunky and Genes Are Creamy,” Gene Expression, February 6, 2013, available at http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2013/02/why-culture-is-chunky-and-genes-are-creamy/?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+GeneExpressionBlog+%28Gene+Expression%29#.U5NSwJRdUsy.

  of course, Shakespeare’s sonnets: N. Goldman, et al., “Towards Practical, High-Capacity, Low-Maintenance Information Storage in Synthesized DNA,” Nature 494, no. 7435 (2013).

  INDEX

  The page numbers in this index refer to the printed version of this book. To find the corresponding locations in the text of this digital version, please use the “search” function on your e-reader. Note that not all terms may be searchable.

  Aachen, 148

  adoptees, 85–92, 124

  family searches by, 211–12

  Africa, 32, 141, 247, 250–51, 258, 261

  Bantu in, 255

  Benin, 143–46

  Bushmen in, 255–56

  distrust in, 143–46, 150–51, 156

  genome and, 254–55

  humanity’s origin in and exodus from, 234, 246–48, 250–52, 255, 284, 303

  Khoe-San in, 251

  Pygmies In, 255

  skin color and, 284–85

  slave trade in, 140–46, 256–57

  African American Lives, 282

 
African Americans, 47, 71, 257

  Grant and, 59–60

  little races and, 271

  Melungeons and, 271, 276

  segregation and, 60

  Afrobarometer, 145

  aging, 30

  agriculture, 248, 253, 259

  invention of the plow, 152–53

  wheat-growing cultures vs. rice-growing cultures, 153–54

  Ahnenpass, 73–74

  Alexander, Alison, 98–107

  al-Hilali, Taj el-Din, 108

  Alzheimer’s disease, 308, 317

  American Anthropological Association, 311

  American Breeders Association, 62

  American Society of Human Genetics, 233

  Americas, 249, 255, 256

  amylase, 258–59

  ancestry, 262–63

  looks-based judgments on, 283–84

  race and, 239, 263

  Ancestry.com, 17, 40, 81, 92, 124–30, 206–7

  AncestryDNA.com, 207, 210, 212

  Angrist, Misha, 317

  animals, domestication of, 261

  Antarctica, 249

  Anthill, William, 138

  Anzick-1, 250

  APOE gene, 308, 317

  Apted, Michael, 136

  Arnarson, Ingólfur, 132

  Ashkenazis, 297

  diseases in, 297–98, 300

  Asian genealogies, 31–32

  Austen, Jane, 183, 243

  Australia, 3, 27, 69, 249, 281, 318

  Aboriginals in, 251, 255, 281, 282, 283

  British colonization of, 255

  children institutionalized in, 86–92

  convicts in, 2, 17, 96–110, 135–38

  Deegan in, 2, 3, 96–98, 108–10

  Founders and Survivors and, 135–38

  genomes and, 250

  indigenous children in, 92

  records in, 88, 91–92, 135–38

  Returned & Services League in Parramatta, 17–19, 22

  Tasmania, 96–97, 99–105, 107–8

  autism, 304

  autosomes, 202

  DNA in, 207, 210, 211, 213, 216, 257

  baboons, 20

  Baird, Jane, 98

  Bakewell, Robert, 49–51, 53, 107, 261

  Banks-Young, Shay, 232

  Bantu, 255

  Bateson, William, 53

  Beagle (HMS), 101, 183

  beliefs, 157, 177

  about gender differences, 152–53

  see also ideas and feelings

  Bell, Alexander William, 62

  Benga, Ota, 57–58

  Benin, 143–46

  Beringia, 249

  beta thalassemia, 301

  Bettinger, Blaine, 210–11

  Bible, 36, 50, 121

  Bible, Jean Patterson, 268

  Bieble, surname, 199–200

  Bieble Y, 199–200

  bin Laden, Osama, 183

  birth certificates, 87, 88–89

  birthers, 40

  bitter-taste-receptor genes, 259

  Bittles, Alan, 302

  Black Death, 147–48, 149, 151, 180

  Blake, William, 163

  blindness, 129

  blood clotting, 306

  blood groups, 162–63

  Blue Jacket (ship), 138

  Bodmer, Julia, 164

  Bodmer, Walter, 164, 165, 168, 282–83

  Boone and Crockett Club, 56

  Borjigin, Baiying, 93–95

  Boserup, Ester, 152

  Boston Tea Party, 42

  bottlenecks, 247–48, 250–51, 255, 256, 260, 295, 303

  Bradbury, Mary, 35

  Braithwaite, John, 101, 107

  Brandt, Karl, 75

  BRCA mutation, 305

  breast cancer, 305

  Breeder’s Gazette, 51

  breeding, 51, 54

  eugenics and, see eugenics

  of sheep, 49–51, 59

  Brigham Young University, 205–6

  Bright, Jonathan Brown, 34

  Britain, 159–61, 163–64

  Celts in, 168–70, 173–74, 243

  genetic patterns in, 164–68, 171–77, 213, 221–22, 236, 283

  history of, 168–74

  Roman, 170–73

  Saxons in, 168–74, 177

  surnames in, 196–97

  British Broadcasting Company (BBC), 119–20

  British Medical Journal, 233

  Buck, Carrie, 64

  Burbury, Thomas, 104

  Burwell, Lewis, 37

  Bushmen, 255–56

  Butler, Carrie, 24

  CAG sequence, 289, 304, 306

  Cajuns, 298–99, 301

  Canada, 92, 133–34, 137, 318

  French Canadians in, 298

  cancer, 309

  breast, 305

  candidate gene studies, 162

  carbon dioxide, 180

  Carroll, Cindy, 286–87

  Carroll, Jeff, 286–87, 290–95, 308, 311–12

  case-control studies, 164

  Cassanga tribe, 140–41

  Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca, 234–36

  Celts, 168–70, 173–74, 243

  census data, 41, 47, 128–29, 133

  Cerdic, King, 35

  Chancellor, Anna, 183

  childbirth rates, 61

  children:

  knowledge of family history in, 115

  orphaned and institutionalized,

  85–92, 124

  China, 32, 93–96

  Cultural Revolution in, 94

  records in, 94–96, 127

  surnames in, 192

  wheat-growing cultures vs. rice-growing cultures in, 153–54

  chromosomes, 31, 184, 201

  hot spots on, 218

  recombination of, 184–85, 201, 202, 214–15, 216, 218

  X, 184, 201, 202, 216, 257

  Y, see Y chromosomes

  Church, George, 316, 317, 318

  Churchill, Winston, 20–21, 105

  Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS; Mormon Church), 46

  Family History Centers of, 115–16, 206

  Jews and, 122, 123

  proxy baptism in, 46, 113, 122–23

  records kept by, 111–17, 122–24, 126

  cigarette smoking, 254

  Cincinnatus, Lucius Quinctius, 41

  Civil War, 35, 47

  class system, 46

  Clement VI, Pope, 147

  cloning, 7–8

  Clovis culture, 250

  colonial America, 37–41

  colonialism, 71, 141, 143, 157, 255, 256

  community closeness, 156

  computers, 310

  Concepcion, Maria, 288

  Confucius, 32, 203, 221, 225

  Conniff, Richard, 20–21

  Consanguinity in Context (Bittles), 302

  convicts, 139–40

  in Australia, 2, 17, 96–110, 135–38

  Cooley, Robert, III, 228

  Cooley-Quille, Michele, 228, 231

  Coop, Graham, 213–14, 216–17, 220, 222

  Crick, Francis, 161

  crime, 107

  Croatan, 271

  Crohn’s disease, 254

  cupules, 121

  Cushman, Robert, 44

  Cuyler, Theodore L., 159

  Cyclone Heta, 117

  cystic fibrosis, 302

  Darwin, Charles, 53–54, 59, 60, 71, 101, 183, 303

  descendants of, 183

  Darwin, Chris, 183

  deafness, 129

  De
claration of Independence, 38, 41, 225

  deCODEme, 316

  Deegan, Michael, 2, 3, 96–98, 108–10

  deer, 56

  Denisovans, 254–55, 305

  de novo point mutations, 304

  diabetes, 254, 306, 308–9, 319

  Dillon, Daniel, 27

  Dillon, Jeremiah, 27

  Dillon, Johanna, 27–28

  Dillon, Julia, 27–28, 109

  disabilities, 129

  diseases, 161–62, 239, 260, 285, 296–312

  Alzheimer’s disease, 308, 317

  in Ashkenazis, 297–98, 300

  beta thalassemia, 301

  breast cancer, 305

  cancer, 309

  cystic fibrosis, 302

  diabetes, 254, 306, 308–9, 319

  Huntington’s disease, 286–95, 299, 306, 307, 308, 318

  Melungeons and, 273

  Mendelian, see Mendelian diseases

  Neanderthal genome and, 254

  in Samaritans, 296, 299–300

  sickle-cell anemia, 302

  Tay-Sachs disease, 297–99, 301

  distrust, 143–46, 150–51

  DNA, x–xi, 3, 6, 7, 9–11, 13–14, 21–22, 31, 81, 134, 135, 158, 178, 201, 203–24, 264, 311, 315–19

  ancient, 252–53, 255

  autosomal, 207, 210, 211, 213, 216, 257

  blending of, 164

  British history and, 172–75, 177

  case-control studies of, 164

  chunks of, 217

  culture and, 179–202

  as digital storage device, 319–20

  discovery of structure of, 161

  family similarity and, 280

  and genetic tree vs. genealogical tree, 218–19

  of Genghis Khan, 180–81

  history in, 159–78

  in Italy, 222

  linkage disequilibrium and, 256

  of MacLaren clan, 189–91

  Melungeons and, 277

  mitochondrial (mtDNA), 163, 186, 201, 206, 207, 216, 221, 253, 257

  Neanderthal, 252–54

  negative impacts of testing, 232–34, 242

  noncoding, 13, 304

  nonhuman, 255

  in Norway, 203–6

  as palimpsest, 264, 320

  people’s responses to testing of, 242–44

  politics of, 225–45

  re-creating a lineage and, 214–16

  shared ancestors and, 214, 218, 220–24

  traits and, see traits

  transmission over many generations, 213–18

  DNA laboratory, 208

  DNA testing (genetic genealogy) companies, 207–11, 213, 217, 232, 313

 

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