The council was recalled repeatedly; a vote was taken again and again, but still it was impossible to get two-thirds of the senators to accept the pope’s terms. When however he grew more insistent and demanded a reply before he left, and it appeared that he would be furious if he did not prevail, the senate finally voted to admit the Nobles to all offices and to grant them a fourth of some privileges and an eighth of the others. The announcement of this vote soon filled the whole city with rejoicing. The entire senate and all the magistrates went to acquaint the pope with what had been done. Pius, though he realized that his wishes had not been fully met, still, in order not to cast gloom on the city, appeared pleased and thanked the senate, praising what they had done and saying that he hoped for something more when he returned from Mantua.
From The Commentaries of Pius II, book II, trans. F. Gragg, L. Gabel, ed. Smith College Studies in History, vol. xxv, nos. 1-4 (Oct. 1939—July 1940)·
A Petty Italian Tyrant
Fourteenth century
THERE was in the Romagna a faithless dog of a Patarine [heretic], a rebel against Holy Church. For thirty years he had been excommunicate and his lands had been under an interdict without the reading of a mass. He held in his power many lands of the Church: the cities of Forll, Cesena, Forlimpopoli, Castrocaro, Brettinoro, Imola, and Giazzolo. All these he held and ruled them as a tyrant; not to mention many other castles and communes belonging to local proprietors.
This was Francesco Ordelaffi, a desperate character and a mortal enemy of priests, who never forgot that he had been harshly treated by the former legate, Bertrando del Poggetto, cardinal of Ostia. He refused to live any longer under priestly rule ... He was a faithless and obstinate tyrant. This Francesco, when he heard the bells ringing for his excommunication, ordered other bells to be rung and excommunicated the pope and the cardinals, and, what was worse, he burned paper images of them filled with straw in the market place. Talking with his good friends, he said, “Well, we are excommunicated, but for all that our bread, our meat, and our wine will taste just as well and do us just as much good.”
And this was his way of treating priests and monks: The bishop, after he had pronounced the excommunication and had been outrageously insulted, stayed away, and the captain forced the clergy to celebrate mass, the greater part of them doing as they were ordered in spite of the interdict. Fourteen clerics, seven monks and seven seculars, received the sacred honour of martyrdom. Seven of them were hanged by the neck and seven were flayed. He was absolutely devoted to the people of Forlì and dearly beloved by them. He put on the appearance of pious philanthropy, found husbands for orphan girls, secured places for others, and provided for the poor among his friends.
Trans. E. Emerton, in Humanism and Tyranny: Studies in the ItalianTrecento (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1925).
A Picture of a Tyrant
POPE PIUS II
Fifteenth century
SIGISMONDO, of the noble family of the Malatesta but illegitimate, was very vigorous in body and mind, eloquent, and gifted with great military ability. He had a thorough knowledge of history and no slight acquaintance with philosophy. Whatever he attempted he seemed born for, but the evil part of his character had the upper hand. He was such a slave to avarice that he was ready not only to plunder but to steal. His lust was so unbridled that he violated his daughters and his sons-in-law. When he was a lad he often played the bride and after taking the woman’s part debauched men. No marriage was sacred to him. He ravished nuns and outraged Jewesses; boys and girls who would not submit to him he had murdered or savagely beaten. He committed adultery with many women to whose children he had been godfather and murdered their husbands. He outdid all barbarians in cruelty. His bloody hand inflicted terrible punishments on innocent and guilty alike. He oppressed the poor, plundered the rich, spared neither widows nor orphans. No one felt safe under his rule. Wealth or a beautiful wife or handsome children were enough to cause a man to be accused of crime. He hated priests and despised religion. He had no belief in another world and thought the soul died with the body. Nevertheless he built at Rimini a splendid church dedicated to St. Francis, though he filled it so full of pagan works of art that it seemed less a Christian sanctuary than a temple of heathen devil-worshippers. In it he erected for his mistress a tomb of magnificent marble and exquisite workmanship with an inscription in the pagan style as follows, “Sacred to the deified Isotta.” The two wives he had married before he took Isottta for his mistress he killed one after the other with the sword or poison. The third, whom he married before these, he divorced before he had intercourse with her, but kept her dowry. Meeting not far from Verona a noble lady who was going from Germany to Rome in the jubilee year, he assaulted her (for she was very beautiful) and when she struggled left her wounded and covered with blood. Truth was seldom in his mouth. He was a past master of simulation and dissimulation. He showed himself a perjuror and traitor to Alfonso, king of Sicily, and his son Ferrante. He broke his word to Francesco, duke of Milan, to the Venetians, the Florentines and the Sienese. Repeatedly too he tricked the Church of Rome. Finally when there was no one left in Italy for him to betray, he went on to the French, who allied themselves with him out of hatred for Pope Pius but fared no better than the other princes. When his subjects once begged him to retire at last to a peaceful life and spare his country, which had so often been exposed to pillage on his account, he replied, “Go and be of good courage; never while I live shall you have peace.”
Such was Sigismondo, intolerant of peace, a devotee of pleasure, able to endure any hardship, and greedy for war. Of all men who have ever lived or ever will live he was the worst scoundrel, the disgrace of Italy and the infamy of our times.
From The Commentaries of Pius II, book II, trans. F. Gragg, L. Gabel, ed.
Renewal and Reform
The Recovery of the Holy Land: A Plan of Action and a Scheme for Reform
PIERRE DU BOIS
1305-1307
To the most illustrious prince, distinguished above all others in the glories of his military art and experience, to the most Christian lord Edward, by divine favour king of England and Scotland, lord of Ireland, duke of Aquitaine, the most lowly advocate of his ecclesiastical cases in this same duchy, in order to serve him, moved long since by the pure ardour of natural affection and royal virtue, seeking nothing and up to now paid no salary, with the greatly desired increase of good fortune, sends greeting in Him through whom all true kings rule and princes govern.
I have recognized in you a true king, magnanimous and splendid, because you have understood not only how to rule, but also at the same time how to fight, and a true legislator, because you have until now devoted the greatest effort to making all your subjects, far and near, good, not only through fear of punishment, but also by the frequent encouragement of great rewards. And now at last, after your wars have been brought to a successful conclusion, your armies aided by the Lord, the King of kings, from whom all good things come, in place of that rest which other princes, after such great labours, and much lesser men are wont to choose, your glorious spirit has been strongly inclined to the recovery of the Holy Land, so that it may be snatched from the hands of the infidel. Thus, at the approach of old age, against the natural and accustomed inclination of men, you would courageously embrace, with fervent desire, the true perfection of fortitude by undertaking fearful struggles, in which the death of the body is threatened, and out of which the life of the soul is born. For this reason, although I am the least in counsel, I ... propose briefly to discuss, with the help and favour of the highest wisdom of God, those things which seem to me necessary, profitable, and also appropriate to the recovery and preservation of the Holy Land.
But it seems that this cannot be accomplished, unless all impediments have been removed, and all that is profitable and fitting has been ordained, by the most holy father, your friend, by divine providence supreme pontiff of the most holy Roman and universal Church, with the assent of a
general council of all Catholic princes and prelates. For that land most excellent beyond all others, according to the testimony of the Saviour, has been extraordinarily populated by the Saracens who occupied it. Because, being devoted to a polygamous way of life and without exception having leisure for it, they were so much more effective in the procreation and education of children, the many regions and kingdoms of the area near the east, west, and south of the same Holy Land were not enough for them. For this reason, they left these lands after the manner of the Tartars. From these surrounding kingdoms those Saracens will quickly and easily have a multitude of people to aid them, if, in great fear of death, they should yield to your kings and princes, to you and others, thinking that they will quickly return to their own lands. Immediately after their retreat, those Saracens will return, more warlike and in greater numbers, so that they may slay those who are there and possess the sweetness of the land....
Therefore, that land [the Holy Land] cannot be taken except by a great multitude, nor, after it has been taken, can it be held.
To the end that such a great multitude may be led there, and may remain there, it will be necessary for Catholic princes to be harmonious, and not to have wars among themselves. For if, while they are there, they should hear that their own lands are overcome and laid waste, they will give up the inheritance of the Lord, and will return to their own to defend it, just as it has happened there many times. For that reason, it is expedient that peace be established among all Catholics, at least among those obedient to the Roman Church, so that there may be one commonwealth, so strongly united that it may not be divided; since “every kingdom divided against itself, will fall,” as the Saviour says; and if it should be divided, it is expedient that by this division, the safeguarding of the Holy Land should be strengthened, as will appear below.
For we have seen that although the Germans and the Spaniards are renowned warriors, yet because of the frequent wars of their kingdoms, they have now become idle, and are unable to come to the aid of the Holy Land. The wars of the Catholics among themselves are the very worst, because many die in them in such a state that the everlasting life of such men is truly in doubt.
And as often as they begin wars, so much the more do they desire to wage them, pursuing this course more from habit than for advantage, not seeking or keeping the peace after wars nor through them, and not being afraid to start wars again. They do not pay attention to the words of the philosopher, the teacher of Alexander: “All war is evil and unlawful in itself, so much so that he who seeks war for its own sake has his end in wickedness.” But, nevertheless, when it is impossible to have peace by other means than by war, it is permitted to just men to seek and to wage war, so that, when peace has been obtained, after the war, in time of peace men may have leisure for cultivating virtue and knowledge. Otherwise, unless it is for this end, all war is unlawful, also according to the doctors of civil law.
We see that when the fathers and grandfathers have died in unlawful war, the surviving descendants and the wives of the dead, whatever they may promise, prepare themselves again, as quickly as they can, for war and wilful vengeance. These things thus happen, brought about by the maker of dissension through his temptations, persuasions and infinite frauds and deceptions, so that he may cause the number of those damned with him to increase, and may hinder and retard the recovery and preservation of the Holy Land. For this reason he does not wish to allow the strength of the Catholics to be unified, since, as the philosopher says: “All strength united is stronger than it is dispersed and divided....”
To the end, therefore, that the Holy Land can be recovered, and having been recovered, can be held against so many and such great demons, who have followers, protectors, and helpers, the devout prayers of the universal Church seem necessary. And it does not seem possible to have them without a reformation of the condition of the universal Church, which is discussed below. Nor is it possible unless the whole commonwealth of Christians obedient to the Roman Church, bound together by the bond of peace, is united in such a way that Catholics would mutually desist from all warfare among themselves; so that if any should engage in war, out of this warfare and because of it, the recovery and defence of the Holy Land might be strengthened.
This could be accomplished thus. After a general council has been called, because of ardour for the deliverance of the Holy Land, the greatest royal experience will be able to request through the lord pope that the princes and prelates should agree and determine to the end that, when anyone whosoever says that he has suffered injuries according to the laws and customs of the kingdoms and regions, justice will be done, more quickly than is customary, by judges established in those places, and where they have not been established, they should be, in the manner described below. No Catholic should rush to arms against Catholics; no one should shed the blood of a baptized Christian. Whoever wants to fight should strive to fight against the enemies of the Christian faith, of the Holy Land and the holy places of the Lord, not against brothers, seeking an occasion of bodily and spiritual perdition.
Those who should presume, moreover, to carry on warfare against their fellow Catholics, in defiance of this wholesome decision, by that act should incur the loss of all their goods, with everything which aids them in fighting—foodstuffs, arms, and other necessities of life or battle—and in ruling, in any way whatsoever. After the war has ended, those who survive, of whatever estate, condition, and sex, should be exiled forever from their lands and possessions, and, completely deprived, with all of their descendants, they should be sent to people the Holy Land. As much as will be necessary for their expenses and for making the journey should be given to them from the property of which they have been deprived, if they should be obedient and willingly intend to transfer themselves to the Holy Land....
But since these cities [the Italian cities] and many princes do not recognize superiors in their lands, who should administer justice to them according to the laws and customs of these places, will they not begin to cause disputes, and come before those judges and quarrel? It can be answered that the council should establish as judges religious men or others chosen for this purpose, prudent, experienced, and trustworthy men. When these three judges mentioned above and three others on behalf of both sides, men of substance, and such as it is likely cannot be corrupted by love, hatred, fear, greed, or otherwise, have been sworn, they should come together in a place more suitable for this purpose. After these men have taken very binding oaths, and, when the articles of petition and defence of each party have been presented, summarily and easily, they should meet beforehand, and after first rejecting that which is superfluous and inappropriate, they should receive the witnesses and the instruments, and should examine them most diligently. The examination of every witness should be heard by at least two of the sworn, trustworthy, and prudent men. The depositions should be written down, and guarded very carefully by the judges, in order to prevent fraud and deception.
Thus the judges may agree, in order to pay moderate expenses of the parties, that as much will be paid as these expend when they are in their own homes. For the purpose of judging, if it shall seem expedient, the judges may have, according to their consciences, assistants who are very trustworthy and very well trained in divine and canon and civil law.
If either side should not be content with the decision of these judges, the judges may, on behalf of all, send the process of the dispute with the decisions to the apostolic see, to be amended or altered by the supreme pontiff then reigning, in so far as, and if, it seems just; if not, they should be confirmed advantageously for the perpetual memory of the matter, and should be registered in the records of the holy Roman Church.
Since, indeed, the changes in the succession of the empire haye been wont to present infinite occasions of war in Germany, obstructing the customary election of the emperor, and because these accustomed discords have hindered the recovery and the preservation of the Holy Land, a firm peace in the Roman Empire would very likely
be able to contribute very great aid to that same recovery and preservation.... Lest the well-being and prestige of the commonwealth, the kingdom and the empire of so noble a people should be extinguished, the kingdom of Germany and the empire should be asked to confirm itself in a modern king, and in his descendants after him. In order to avoid scandal and to quiet the greed of the electors, some compensation with regard to the affairs and liberties of the empire should be made to them. The modern king and future emperor should agree and should promise an annual aid to the Holy Land, as long as it will be in need of it, of a great number of fighting men, whom he will send to the sea-ports at his own expense, sufficiently armed and prepared....
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