308.S. Niebur, “Regret Turns to Action,” Toddler Planet (blog), March 14, 2008, https://toddlerplanet.wordpress.com/2008/03/14/regret-turns-to-action.
309.The site remains active: https://womeninplanetaryscience.wordpress.com.
310.S. Niebur, “Flight Missions,” Women in Planetary Science, last modified March 15, 2008, https://womeninplanetaryscience.wordpress.com/2008/03/15/flight-missions.
311.NASA, “Cassini Launch.”
312.NASA, “NASA and ESA Prioritize Outer Planet Missions,” press release, February 18, 2009, https://www.nasa.gov/topics/solarsystem/features/20090218.html.
313.G. McCartney, email message to K. Patel regarding interview, July 17, 2019.
314.K. Clark, telephone interview by author, August 21, 2018.
See also K. Patel, telephone interview by author, November 14, 2018.
Though this chapter is told largely from Karla’s perspective, the narrative of her ousting is drawn from hours of interviews with Karla, Keyur, and multiple members of the science and engineering teams, some of whom spoke on background. I asked Keyur point-blank about the circumstances of Karla’s exit from the project, the staffing issues, and the general negativity throughout, and he repeatedly pleaded ignorance of what happened: “I don’t think I have any of the inside knowledge of what transpired there within the team and such,” he said.
When I pointed out that he was her direct supervisor, he responded, “I am trying to think if Karla was actually within this organization. If she was, remember: direct supervision is an interesting term. It is, the director for—between the two of us, Rick [Grammier, former director for solar system exploration at JPL] and myself, we would have been the supervision for this thing. But any conversation I’ve had with Karla, the things that you’re bringing up about internal turmoil on the team, I don’t remember her saying anything like that. I’ll remind you that you’re talking about a memory that is ten years old.”
Multiple members of the science team expressed skepticism at this, but the reader is invited to judge based on his above comments in full.
315.Destination Moon, dir. I. Pichel (Eagle-Lion Films, 1950).
316.Ibid.
317.Ibid.
318.Ibid.
319.J. F. Kennedy, “John F. Kennedy Moon Speech, Rice Stadium, September 12, 1961,” text, audio, and movie clips, NASA, accessed October 24, 2019, https://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/ricetalk.htm.
320.“Attention . . . Engineers and Scientists,” Career Center advertisement, Philadelphia Inquirer, September 18, 1962, 4.
See also “Engineers, Scientists: Which of 67 Leading Firms Will Offer You the Greatest Degree of Professional Advancement?” Career Center advertisement, Philadelphia Inquirer, September 19, 1962, 50, https://www.newspapers.com/clip/24743018/the_philadelphia_inquirer.
321.T. Gavin, telephone interview by author, December 29, 2016.
322.B. Momsen, “Mariner IV—First Flyby of Mars—Some Personal Experiences,” personal blog of Bill Momsen, last modified December 14, 2002, https://web.archive.org/web/20021214075710/http://home.earthlink.net:80/~nbrass1/mariner/miv-2.htm.
323.S. M. Krimigis and D. Venkatesan, “The Radial Gradient of Interplanetary Radiation Measured by Mariners 4 and 5,” Journal of Geophysical Research 74, no. 16 (1969): 4129–45, https://doi.org/10.1029/JA074i016p04129.
324.R. Pyle, “Alone in the Darkness: Mariner 4 to Mars, 50 Years Later,” Caltech, last modified July 14, 2015, https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/alone-darkness-mariner-4-mars-50-years-later-47324.
Mars is hard, and it took a long time for Jet Propulsion Laboratory to develop the institutional knowledge necessary for mission success. One example of the sheer challenge of early exploration came from Mariner 4. The spacecraft navigated outer space by locking first on the sun and then on the shining star Canopus in the constellation Carina. Like lumber-hewn liners of old, the stars would steer her by. Once launched, however, Canopus proved . . . slippery for a star. It kept . . . moving around? There it is! said the spacecraft, and went the wrong way, and there it is! and another course correction—there it—this continued, and the engineers at Jet Propulsion Laboratory were vexed and bemused. They were puzzled and anxious. Astrophysics really did not provide for this sort of behavior in a star. It was probably a spacecraft issue. The engineers sharpened their pencils and carried their ones, and found finally that what Mariner 4 marked as a star was in fact a chip of paint that followed the spacecraft after separation from the rocket. (Physics did allow for that.) The fleck floated and flipped this way or that, and every so often it would grab a glint of sunlight, and an ersatz Canopus captured and confused computer guidance. But who would have guessed, even at Jet Propulsion Laboratory! Whose hallway wanderers knew no A’s-sans-plus. No one certainly would now ever forget, enriching the lab’s institutional knowledge base with marginalia that must (and could only) be hard learned.
325.JPL, “Voyager—Planetary Voyage,” JPL, accessed October 24, 2019, https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/science/planetary-voyage.
326.R. Dawe and J. Arnett, Thermoelectric Outer Planets Spacecraft (TOPS) Electronic Packaging and Cabling Development Summary Report (JPL-TM-33-716) (Pasadena, CA: JPL, 1974).
327.A. Butrica, “Voyager: The Grand Tour of Big Science,” NASA History Series, 1998, https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4219/Chapter11.html.
328.Homer, The Iliad, 27th ed., trans. W. H. D. Rouse (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1938).
329.JPL, Design, Verification/Validation and Operations Principles for Flight Systems (JPL-D-17868) (Pasadena, CA: JPL, 2001).
See also D. Linick and C. Briggs, “Developing the JPL Engineering Processes” (presentation, Space 2004 Conference and Exhibit, San Diego, CA, 2004), https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2004-6129.
330.T. Gavin, Flight Project Practices (D-58032) (Pasadena, CA: JPL, 2002).
331.T. Gavin, telephone interview by author, December 29, 2016.
332.K. Clark, email message to the Europa team regarding her situation, June 21, 2010.
333.R. Pappalardo, email message to Europa Jupiter System Mission team regarding gift for Karla, August 9, 2010.
334.Woodlands Waterway Marriott representative, telephone interview by author, September 20, 2018.
335.C. Shupla, email message to author regarding LPSC 2006 numbers, September 24, 2018.
336.S. Squyres, “Vision and Voyages for Planetary Science in the Decade 2013–2022” (PowerPoint presentation, Forty-Second Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, the Woodlands, TX, March 2011).
337.E. Weiler, email message to C. Kennel regarding a planetary science Decadal Survey, December 5, 2008.
338.Ibid.
339.E. Hand, “Steve Squyres on Planetary Priorities,” Nature, last updated March 26, 2009, https://doi.org/10.1038/news.2009.195.
340.J. Spencer, Mission Concept Study: Planetary Science Decadal Survey, Jupiter Europa Orbiter Component of EJSM (Pasadena, CA: NASA, JPL, March 2010).
341.G. Schilling, “ESA on Countdown to Flagship Mission Selection,” Nature, last updated February 4, 2011, https://doi.org/10.1038/news.2011.74.
342.European Space Agency, “Cosmic Vision Call for Proposals: Missions Selected,” European Space Agency Science & Technology, last modified September 1, 2019, https://sci.esa.int/web/cosmic-vision/-/46510-cosmic-vision?fbodylongid=2152.
343.M. Dougherty et al., “Europa Jupiter System Mission–Laplace” (Power-Point presentation, Cosmic Vision 2015–2025 Plan L-Class Missions Presentation, Institut Océanographique de Paris, 2011).
See also M. Dougherty et al., “Europa Jupiter System Mission–Laplace” (MP3 presentation, Cosmic Vision 2015–2025 Plan L-Class Missions Presentation, Institut Océanographique de Paris, 2011).
344.Lunar and Planetary Institute, “Planetary Decadal Survey Briefing” (Livestream presentation, Forty-Second Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, the Woodlands, TX, March 2011).
See also Squyres, “Vision and Voyages for Planetary Science.”
345.F. Bagenal, interview by author, August 23, 2016.
See also J. Foust, “Europa Mission Planning for Possible Budget Cuts in 2017,” SpaceNews, last modified August 17, 2016, https://spacenews.com/europa-mission-planning-for-possible-budget-cuts-in-2017.
See also F. Bagenal, telephone interview by author, August 24, 2018.
346.F. Bagenal, interview by author, August 23, 2016.
See also Foust, “Europa Mission Planning.”
347.F. Bagenal, telephone interview by author, August 24, 2018.
See also R. Pappalardo, interview by author, September 20, 2016.
348.National Research Council, Vision and Voyages for Planetary Science in the Decade 2013–2022 (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2011), 16, https://doi.org/10.17226/13117.
349.Ibid., 5.
350.Mars Mid-Range Rover Science Analysis Group, “Final Report of the Mars Mid-Range Rover Science Analysis Group (MRR-SAG),” Astrobiology 10, no. 2 (October 14, 2009): 127–63, http://doi.org/10.1089/ast.2010.0462.
See also F. Bagenal, email message to B. Hood regarding Europa mission planning for possible budget cuts in 2017, August 23, 2016.
351.National Academies, “Spring 2011 Meetings of the Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board and Space Studies Board Agenda, April 5th–7th, 2011” (April 4, 2011).
352.NASA, President’s FY2012 Budget Request (Washington, DC: NASA, 2011), retrieved from https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/516675main_NASAFY12_Budget_Estimates-508.pdf.
353.R. Pappalardo, email message to T. Gavin and K. Patel regarding notes from space studies board meeting, April 11, 2011.
See also R. Pappalardo, email message to author regarding SSB and Squyres on Europa (picking up the pieces following the Decadal), October 26, 2018.
354.R. Pappalardo, telephone interview by author, June 2, 2018.
See also R. Pappalardo, email message to T. Gavin and K. Patel regarding notes from space studies board meeting, April 11, 2011.
See also R. Pappalardo, email message to author regarding SSB and Squyres on Europa (picking up the pieces following the Decadal), October 26, 2018.
355.C. Niebur, telephone interview by author, October 16, 2018.
356.Stern and Grinspoon, Chasing New Horizons, 67.
357.E. Weiler, interview by author, September 4, 2017.
358.R. Pappalardo, email message to D. Senske, L. Prockter, T. Magner, and G. Garner regarding first cut at a Europa SDT charter to send to Curt, April 5, 2011.
359.D. E. Smith, “A Budget Phasing Approach to Europa Jupiter System Mission Science” (white paper, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 2010).
360.R. Pappalardo, email message to A. Stern regarding Europa SDT, April 25, 2011.
361.D. D. Blankenship et al., Feasibility Study and Design Concept for an Orbiting Ice-Penetrating Radar Sounder to Characterize in Three-Dimensions the Europan Ice Mantle Down to (and Including) Any Ice/Ocean Interface (technical report no. 184, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, Austin, 1999), 26.
See also D. Blankenship, telephone interview by author, November 16, 2018.
362.D. Blankenship, interview by author, March 5, 2019.
363.R. Pappalardo, email message to R. Greeley regarding Europa split pay-load, May 5, 2011.
364.Google Maps Street View, “2650 Haslett Road, East Lansing, Michigan,” Google, accessed October 23, 2019. This sign can be found at approximately 2650 Haslett Road driving eastbound from Haslett into East Lansing.
Alternately, driving into town from the west on East Michigan Avenue, you get the same message. You would absolutely not believe how much research went into this book. See Google Maps Street View, “330 E Michigan Avenue, East Lansing, Michigan,” Google, accessed October 23, 2019.
365.“Legislator Details—Lester J. Allen [Data],” Library of Michigan, accessed October 23, 2019, https://mdoe.state.mi.us/legislators/Legislator/LegislatorDetail/3015.
366.“Legislator Details—Richard John Allen [Data],” Library of Michigan, accessed October 23, 2019, https://mdoe.state.mi.us/legislators/Legislator/LegislatorDetail/4439.
367.L. Kestenbaum, “The Political Graveyard: Index to Politicians: Allen, O to R,” Political Graveyard, accessed October 23, 2019, http://politicalgraveyard.com/bio/allen7.html#464.63.54.
368.NASA, “Biographical Data: Sally K. Ride,” last modified July 2012, https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/ride_sally.pdf.
369.Ride was not aboard.
370.“Valentina Tereshkova,” Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, accessed October 23, 2019, https://airandspace.si.edu/people/historical-figure/valentina-tereshkova.
Valentina Tereshkova remains the only woman to fly solo in space and also the youngest, going up at age twenty-six. She just has one hell of a story: daughter of a farmworker, earned her degree through a correspondence program, worked in a tire factory and a textile mill, trained secretly to be a competitive parachutist, as one does. When the Soviet cosmonaut corps selected her for training, she had to enlist in the air force, and no favoritism here: she started as a private, clawed her way up. This wasn’t theater, either; she orbited Earth forty-eight times (John Glenn did three) and by the time she returned to terra firma had logged more space time than every man in the NASA astronaut corps—combined.
371.NASA, “Biographical Data: John Herschel Glenn, Jr.,” last modified December 2016, https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/glenn-j.pdf.
See also T. Wolfe, The Right Stuff, 2nd ed. (New York: Picador, 2008). Look, when we’re talking about Glenn, it always comes back to Tom Wolfe’s masterpiece.
372.D. Shribman, “With Few Words, Glenn Withdraws,” New York Times, March 17, 1984, A8.
373.D. Brandt-Erichsen, “Brief History of the L5 Society,” Ad Astra, December 1994.
374.“Biography of Wernher Von Braun,” NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center History, last modified August 3, 2017, nasa.gov/centers/marshall/history/vonbraun/bio.html.
375.E. Thompson and J. Davis, “Daniel S. Goldin,” NASA History Division, last modified November 4, 2009, https://history.nasa.gov/dan_goldin.html.
376.M. Burke, “Medical Research Investment Takes Off for Fisk Johnson,” Journal Times (Racine, WI), January 23, 2002, https://journaltimes.com/medical-research-investment-takes-off-for-fisk-johnson/article_09bdfb27-1093-5b2b-8f22-60090a6899f5.html.
See also D. Lockney, “Bioreactors Drive Advances in Tissue Engineering,” NASA Spinoff, accessed October 22, 2019, https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2011/hm_1.html.
See also “Administrator Daniel S. Goldin’s Accomplishments,” NASA History Division, accessed March 26, 2020, https://history.nasa.gov/goldin-accomplishments.pdf.
377.“What is ALH 84001?” Lunar and Planetary Institute, accessed October 22, 2019, https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lpi/meteorites/The_Meteorite.shtml.
378.D. S. McKay et al., “Search for Past Life on Mars: Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001,” Science 273, no. 5277 (1996): 924–30, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.273.5277.924.
379.Ibid.
380.L. Garver, interview by author, August 2, 2016. This covers her other conversations with Dan Goldin as well.
381.W. Clinton, “President Clinton Statement Regarding Mars Meteorite Discovery” (statement, the White House, Washington, DC, August 7, 1996), https://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/clinton.html.
382.J.-M. Garcia-Ruiz, “Morphological Behavior of Inorganic Precipitation Systems” (paper, Instruments, Methods, and Missions for Astrobiology II, Denver, CO, July 1999), https://doi.org/10.1117/12.375088.
383.R. Baalke, “Mars Meteorites,” JPL, accessed October 22, 2019, https://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc.
384.NASA, “Space Shuttle Mission STS-90,” press kit, April 1998, https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/presskit/1998/STS-90_presskit.txt.
385.L. Garver, interview by author, August 2, 2016.
386.M. Wines, “Russia Scraps Space Plans of Pop Star,” New York Times, September 4, 2002, E1.
; See also Associated Press, “Lance Bass Officially Kicked Off Space Flight,” Billboard, last modified September 9, 2002, https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/74272/lance-bass-officially-kicked-off-space-flight.
387.L. Garver, interview by author, August 2, 2016.
388.White House, “President Bush Announces New Vision for Space Exploration Program,” news release, January 14, 2004, https://history.nasa.gov/Bush%20SEP.htm.
389.B. Weinraub, “Bush May Back Manned Flights to Moon and Mars,” New York Times, July 18, 1989, A14.
See also G. H. W. Bush, “Remarks on the 20th Anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon Landing,” American Presidency Project, accessed March 12, 2020, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-20th-anniversary-the-apollo-11-moon-landing.
In 1989, on the twentieth anniversary of Apollo 11, newly elected president George H. W. Bush wanted to get the space program back on track, and he wanted to do it in a major address. He didn’t run for office as a “space president,” but the problem had festered long enough—the dearth of science missions (not a single science spacecraft launched during the Reagan administration), the shuttle hemorrhaging billions, and NASA still space-station-less and thus devoid of purpose—it was as good a time as any to get things back in order.
“In 1961,” he said, “it took a crisis—the space race—to speed things up. Today we don’t have a crisis; we have an opportunity. To seize this opportunity, I’m not proposing a 10-year plan like Apollo; I’m proposing a long-range, continuing commitment. First, for the coming decade, for the 1990s: Space Station Freedom, our critical next step in all our space endeavors. And next, for the new century: Back to the Moon; back to the future. And this time, back to stay. And then a journey into tomorrow, a journey to another planet: a manned mission to Mars.”
This was the first serious presidential commitment to deep space exploration since Kennedy’s “We Choose to Go to the Moon” speech. The details would follow. There would be a long-term increase in NASA’s budget—it would be double by Y2K. In ten years’ time, space station Freedom would fly. In twenty years, astronauts would set up a permanent base on the moon. In thirty years—by the fiftieth anniversary of the One Giant Leap—boot prints on Mars.
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