Against all this, it is equally hard to believe that the specifically anti-aristocratic, anti-feudal revolutionary ideology of the Rights of Man would have emerged as it did without the jumble of accident, miscalculation, and misunderstanding which coalesced into a revolution in specifically French circumstances. It is equally hard to believe that anything as extraordinary as dechristianization would have occurred without the monumental misjudgement which produced the Revolution’s quarrel with the Catholic Church. Without that quarrel, the dramatic revival in the authority of the papacy also seems inconceivable. Representative government may well have been on the horizon, but how long would the ideal of popular democracy have taken to establish itself without the example of the sansculotte movement? It certainly transformed and widened out of all recognition the cause of parliamentary reform in England—although the blood-stained figure of the sansculotte probably galvanized conservative resistance on the other side. Above all, the revolutionaries’ decision to go to war, which all historians agree revolutionized the Revolution, destroyed an established pattern of warfare in a way no old regime government would otherwise have promoted. Arming the people was the last thing they would have dreamed of. The emergencies of that war in turn produced the scenes which have indelibly marked our memory of the Revolution: the Terror. Massacres were nothing new, and the worst ones of the 1790s occurred outside France. But there was something horribly new and unimaginable in the prospect of a government systematically executing its opponents by the cartload for months on end, and by a device which, however humane in concept, made the streets run with blood. And this occurred in what had passed for the most civilized country in Europe, whose writers had taught the eighteenth century to pride itself on its increasing mildness, good sense, and humanity. This great drama transformed the whole meaning of political change, and the contemporary world would be inconceivable if it had not happened.
In other words it was a profound cultural transformation. The writers of the Enlightenment, so revered by the intelligentsia who made the Revolution, had always believed it could be done if men dared to seize control of their own destiny. The men of 1789 did so, in a rare moment of courage, altruism, and idealism which took away the breath of educated Europe. What they failed to see, as their inspirers had not foreseen, was that reason and good intentions were not enough by themselves to transform the lot of humanity. Mistakes would be made, as Burke warned, when the accumulated experience of generations was pushed aside as so much routine, prejudice, fanaticism, and superstition. The generation forced to live through the upheavals of the next twenty-six years paid the price. Already by 1802 a million French citizens lay dead; a million more would perish under Napoleon, and untold more abroad. How many millions more still had their lives ruined? Inspiring and ennobling, the prospect of the French Revolution is also moving and appalling: in every sense a tragedy.
Appendix 1
Chronology of the French Revolution
1756–1763 Seven Years War.
1762 Publication of Rousseau’s Emile and Du contrat social.
1764 Expulsion of Jesuits.
1768 Corsica annexed.
1770 Marriage of dauphin (future Louis XVI) to Marie-Antoinette.
Partial bankruptcy of Terray.
1771 Remodelling of parlements by Maupeou.
1774
10 May Accession of Louis XVI.
24 Aug. Dismissal of Maupeou and Terray. Reintegration of parlements follows.
1775
Apr.–May ‘Flour War’.
11 June Coronation of Louis XVI.
1776
4 July American Declaration of Independence.
22 Oct. Necker joins government.
1778 Franco-American alliance. War with Great Britain. Death of Voltaire and Rousseau. Necker establishes two ‘provincial administrations’.
1781
19 Feb. Necker’s Compte rendu.
19 May Necker resigns from government.
1783 Peace of Paris.
3 Nov. Calonne appointed Comptroller-General of Finances.
1784 Death of Diderot.
1785 Necker’s Administration of the Finances.
1786 Anglo-French commercial treaty.
20 Aug. Calonne presents reform proposals to Louis XVI.
1787
22 Feb. Assembly of Notables convenes.
8 Apr. Calonne dismissed. Brienne joins government (30th).
25 May Assembly of Notables dissolved.
Aug. Exile of parlements of Paris and Bordeaux.
13 Sept. Prussian invasion of Dutch Republic.
19 Nov. Royal Session in parlement of Paris.
1788
8 May Lamoignon remodels parlements.
June/July Noble revolt. Day of Tiles in Grenoble (7 June). Assembly of the three orders of Dauphiné at Vizille (21 July).
Aug. Estates-General convoked for May 1789 (8th). Payments from treasury suspended (16th). Brienne resigns; Necker reappointed (24th–26th).
Sept. Parlements restored. Paris parlement demands ‘forms of 1614’ (25th).
5 Oct.–12 Dec. Second Assembly of Notables.
27 Dec. Doubling of third estate.
1789
24 Jan. Estates-General formally summoned.
Feb.–June Elections to Estates-General.
Feb. Publication of Sieyès’s What is the Third Estate?
27–8 Apr. Reveillon riots.
5 May Estates-General convene.
June Third estate votes for common verification of credentials (10th). First parish priests break ranks (13th). National Assembly proclaimed (17th). Tennis Court Oath (20th). Royal Session (23rd). Orders unite (27th).
July Necker dismissed (11th). Bastille falls (14th). Necker recalled; troops withdrawn (16th). Foulon and Bertier murdered (22nd).
Late July Great Fear.
Aug. Abolition of feudalism and privileges (4th). Renunciations of 4th codified (11th). Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen (26th).
Sept. Second chamber rejected (10th). Suspensive veto (11th).
Oct. October Days; Louis XVI and National Assembly move to Paris (5th–6th). Martial Law against Tumults (21st).
Nov. Church property nationalized (2nd). Deputies excluded from government (7th).
12 Dec. Assignats introduced.
1790
Feb. Monastic vows forbidden (13th). Execution of Favras (19th).
12 Apr. Dom Gerle’s motion on established religion.
May Sections of Paris established (21st). Foreign conquests renounced (22nd).
June Bagarre at Nîmes (13th). Nobility abolished (19th).
July Civil Constitution of the Clergy (12th). Feast of the Federation (14th).
Aug. Judiciary reorganized: parlements abolished (16th). Mutiny at Nancy (31st).
27 Nov. Oath of the clergy.
1791
3 Jan. Roll-call on clerical oath.
Feb. Emigration of king’s aunts (19th). ‘Day of Daggers’ (28th).
2 Mar. Guilds dissolved.
Apr. Death of Mirabeau (2nd). Pope condemns Civil Constitution (13th). Louis XVI prevented from spending Easter at Saint-Cloud (18th).
May Debates on colonies and civil status of free coloureds (7th–15th). Self-denying law (16th).
June Voltaire’s ashes placed in Pantheon (11th). Le Chapelier Law (14th). Flight to Varennes (20th).
July Leopold II’s Padua Circular (10th). Reinstatement of Louis XVI (16th). Champ de Mars massacre (17th).
Aug. Slave rebellion in Saint-Domingue (14th). Declaration of Pillnitz (27th).
Sept. Annexation of Avignon. Louis XVI accepts constitution (14th). National Assembly dissolved (30th).
Oct. Legislative Assembly convenes (1st). Brissot’s first call for war (20th).
Nov. Decree against émigrés (9th). Louis XVI vetoes émigré
decree (12th). Decree against refractory priests (29th).
19 Dec. Louis XVI vetoes decree against priests.
1792
25 Jan. French ultimatum to Austria.
10 Mar. Dumouriez joins government.
Apr. War declared on Austria (20th). First use of guillotine (25th).
27 May New decree against refractories.
June Dismissal of Brissotin ministry; Prussia declares war (13th).
Sansculottes invade Tuileries (20th). Lafayette denounces Jacobins (29th).
July Petition of 20,000 (1st). Decree of ‘Country in Danger’ (11th). ‘Country in Danger’ proclaimed (22nd). Paris sections in permanent session; Brunswick Manifesto (25th). Marseilles fédérés enter Paris (30th).
Aug. Paris sections demand dethronement (3rd). Vindication of Lafayette (8th). Storming of Tuileries; overthrow of the monarchy (10th). Extraordinary tribunal established (17th). Defection of Lafayette; Prussians cross the frontier (19th). Fall of Longwy (23rd).
Sept. Fall of Verdun (2nd). September Massacres (2nd–6th). Battle of Valmy (20th). Convention meets (21st). Republic proclaimed (22nd). Nice occupied (29th).
10 Oct. Brissot expelled from Jacobins.
Nov. Battle of Jemappes (6th). Decree of fraternity and help to foreign peoples (19th). Armoire de fer discovered (20th). Annexation of Savoy (27th).
Dec. Decision to try Louis XVI (3rd). Interrogation of Louis XVI (11th). Decree on treatment of occupied territories (15th). Defence of Louis XVI (26th).
1793
Jan. Condemnation of Louis XVI (7th). Death sentence on Louis XVI (16th). Vote against reprieve (18th). Le Peletier assassinated (20th). Execution of Louis XVI (21st). Second partition of Poland (23rd).
Feb. War declared on Great Britain and Dutch Republic (1st). Amalgamation of volunteer and line regiments (21st). Decree conscripting 300,000 men (24th). Food riots in Paris (25th–27th).
Mar. War declared on Spain (7th). Revolutionary Tribunal created (10th). Revolt in the Vendée (11th). Battle of Neerwinden (18th). Revolutionary Armies decreed; revolutionary committees created (21st).
Apr. Dumouriez defects (5th). Committee of Public Safety created (6th). Assignats made sole legal tender (11th). Marat sent for trial (13th). Marat acquitted (24th). ‘Federalist’ uprising in Marseilles (29th).
May First maximum decreed (4th). Forced loan on the rich; Commission of Twelve appointed (20th). Chalier overthrown in Lyons (30th). First anti-Girondin uprising in Paris (31st).
June Purge of Girondins from Convention (2nd). Spread of ‘Federalist revolt’ to Bordeaux and Caen (7th). Vendéans capture Saumur (9th). Constitution of 1793 accepted (24th).
July Danton leaves Committee of Public Safety (10th). Marat assassinated (13th). Final abolition of feudalism (17th). Fall of Mainz (23rd). Death penalty for hoarding (26th). Robespierre joins Committee of Public Safety (27th).
Aug. Decree of levée en masse (23rd). Marseilles recaptured (25th). Toulon surrenders to the British (27th).
Sept. Convention forced to implement government by terror (5th). Battle of Hondschoote; first French victory in 1793 (8th). Law of Suspects (17th). Year II begins (22nd). General maximum introduced (29th).
Oct. Girondins sent for trial (3rd). Revolutionary calendar introduced (5th). Fall of Lyons (9th). Revolutionary Government declared (10th; 19 vendémiaire). Battle of Wattignies; Marie-Antoinette executed (16th). Vendéans defeated at Cholet (17th). Trial of Girondins (24th–30th). Execution of Girondins (31st).
Nov. Festival of reason in Notre-Dame (10th; 20 brumaire). Vendéans retreat from Granville (13th). All Parisian churches closed (22nd).
Dec. Law constituting Revolutionary Government (4th; 14 frimaire). First issue of Vieux Cordelier (5th). Vendéans defeated at Le Mans (12th). Fall of Toulon after British evacuation (19th). Vendéans defeated at Savenay (23rd).
1794
12 Jan.(23 nivôse) Fabre d’Eglantine arrested.
Feb. Abolition of slavery (4th). Price controls revised (21st). First Law of Ventôse (26th; 8 ventôse).
Mar. Second Law of Ventôse (3rd; 13 ventôse). Arrest of Hébertists (13th). Hébertists executed (24th). Revolutionary Armies disbanded (27th).
Apr. Danton and Desmoulins executed (5th; 16 germinal). Rousseau’s ashes moved to Pantheon (14th).
June British naval victory, ‘Glorious First of June’ (1st; 13 prairial). Festival of the Supreme Being (8th; 20 prairial). Law of 22 prairial (10th). Battle of Fleurus (26th).
July Wage controls introduced in Paris (5th; 17 messidor). Fall of Robespierre (27th–28th; 9–10 thermidor).
Aug. Law of 22 prairial repealed (1st; 14 thermidor). Revolutionary Tribunal reorganized (10th). Reorganization of government (24th).
Sept. Trial of Nantes Federalists (8th). State renounces all subsidies to religion (18th; 2nd complementary day). Year III begins (22nd).
Nov. Jacobin Club closed (12th; 22 brumaire). Carrier sent for trial (23rd).
Dec. Reinstatement of surviving Girondins (8th; 18 frimaire). Execution of Carrier (16th). Maximum abolished; invasion of Holland (24th).
1795
20 Jan. (1 pluviôse) Amsterdam occupied.
Feb. Pacification of Lajaunye in Vendée (17th; 29 pluviôse). Freedom of worship restored (21st).
Mar. Arrest of Barère, Billaud-Varenne, Collot d’Herbois (2nd; 12 ventôse). Fouquier-Tinville sent for trial (28th).
Apr. Uprising of Germinal (1st–2nd; 12–13 germinal). Treaty of Basle concluded with Prussia (5th). Disarmament of ‘terrorists’ (10th). Peace concluded with chouans at La Prévalaye (20th).
May Prison massacre at Lyons (4th; 15 floréal). Fouquier-Tinville executed (6th). Treaty of The Hague concluded with Batavian Republic (16th). Uprising of Prairial (20th–23rd; 1–4 prairial). Revolutionary Tribunal abolished (31st).
June Death of Louis XVII (8th; 20 prairial). Declaration of Verona (24th). Royalists land at Quiberon (27th).
July Quiberon invasion defeated (21st; 3 thermidor). Treaty of Basle concluded with Spain (22nd).
22 Aug.(5 fructidor) Constitution of the Year III and Two Thirds Law approved.
23 Sept.(1 vendémiaire) Year IV begins; constitution and Two Thirds Law promulgated.
Oct. Annexation of Belgium (1st; 9 vendémiaire). Uprising of Vendémiaire (5th). End of Convention (26th).
Nov. Directory constituted (2nd; 11 brumaire). Pantheon Club opened (16th).
10 Dec.(19 frimaire) Forced loan.
1796
Feb. Abolition of assignats (19th; 30 pluviôse). Stofflet executed (25th). Pantheon Club closed (27th).
Mar. Bonaparte appointed commander in Italy (2nd; 12 ventôse). Territorial mandates issued (18th). Charette executed (29th).
Apr. Invasion of Italy (11th; 22 germinal). Armistice with Piedmont; Police Legion mutiny (28th).
May Battle of Lodi; Arrest of Babeuf (10th; 21 floréal). Anti-French rising in Pavia (23rd).
12 June(24 prairial) Papal territory invaded.
5 Aug.(18 thermidor) Battle of Castiglione; alliance with Spain.
Sept. Grenelle uprising (9th; 23 fructidor). Year V begins (22nd).
Oct. Peace overtures from Great Britain. Cispadane Republic created (16th; 25 vendémiaire).
15–18 Nov.(25–7 brumaire) Battle of Arcole.
15 Dec.(25 frimaire) Irish expedition sails.
1797
Jan. Withdrawal of Irish expedition (6th; 18 nivôse). Battle of Rivoli (14th).
Feb. Mantua falls (2nd; 14 pluviôse). Return to metallic currency (4th). British naval victory at St Vincent (14th). Treaty of Tolentino with the Pope; Babeuf’s trial begins at Vendôme (19th).
18 Apr.(29 germinal) Preliminaries of Leoben; elections of Year V.
May Venetian Republic occupied (15th; 27 floréal). Councils convene; Barthélemy enters Directory (20t
h). Execution of Babeuf (27th).
29 June(11 messidor) Cisalpine Republic created.
July Ministries reshuffled (16th; 28 messidor). Political clubs closed (25th).
24 Aug. Laws against clergy repealed.
Sept. Coup d’état of Fructidor (4th; 18 fructidor). Carnot and Barthélemy removed from Directory (5th). British peace overtures rejected (17th). Year VI begins (22nd). Consolidation of Two Thirds Debt (30th).
Oct. British naval victory at Camperdown (11th; 20 vendémiaire). Peace of Campo Formio (18th; 26 vendémiaire).
28 Nov.(8 frimaire) Congress of Rastadt opens.
8 Dec. Ochs meets Bonaparte and Reubell.
1798
Jan. Dutch Convention purged (22nd; 3 pluviôse). Annexation of Mulhouse (28th). Law on elections (31st; 21 pluviôse).
Feb. Roman Republic proclaimed (15th; 27 pluviôse). Alliance with Cisalpine Republic (21st).
Mar. Egyptian expedition approved (5th). Helvetic Republic proclaimed; elections of Year VI (22nd).
The Oxford History of the French Revolution Page 62