71. Culpeper Letters, at pp. 176–7. The Scottish alliance is considered in detail above in ch. 10.
72. Lindley, Popular Politics, pp. 348–9.
73. Michael Mendle, ‘De Facto Freedom, De Facto Authority: Press and Parliament, 1460–1643’, HJ, 38 (1995), 307–332; A&O, I, pp. 184–6, quotation at p. 184.
74. Gardiner, I, p. 155. For the proclamation see LJ, vi, pp. 108–9.
75. Gardiner, I, pp. 199–202; Cust, Charles I, pp. 380–81; Hutton, ‘Royalist Party’, p. 558.
76. Hutton, ‘Royalist Party’, pp. 558–9. Hutton’s analysis is criticized as too schematic by James Daly, ‘The Implications of Royalist Politics, 1642–1646’, HJ, 27 (1984), 745–55. See, in general, Cust, Charles I, pp. 358–419.
77. Braddick, Parliamentary Taxation, ch. 4; Braddick, Nerves of State, chs. 1, 2, 5; John Brewer, The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688–1783 (London, 1989); for a full study of innovations in public finance in the 1640s and 1650s and their long-term significance see James Scott Wheeler, The Making of a World Power: War and the Military Revolution in Seventeenth-Century England (Stroud, 1999).
78. Saltmarsh was already on a journey which took him from an orthodox, perhaps relatively High Church, sensibility during the 1630s to the advocacy of free grace by the mid-1640s. Free grace built on the Reformation prioritization of grace over adherence to the law as the key to salvation, but did not limit grace to the elect. Saltmarsh later became chaplain to Sir Thomas Fairfax and was identified as a major threat to religious order. For Saltmarsh see Roger Pooley, ‘Saltmarsh, John (d. 1647)’, ODNB, 48, pp. 770–71; Ann Hughes, Gangraena and the Struggle for the English Revolution (Oxford, 2004). For Henry Marten see Sarah Barber, ‘Marten, Henry (1601/2–1680)’, ODNB, 36, pp. 908–12.
79. Jack Binns, ‘Cholmley, Sir Hugh, First Baronet (1600–1657)’, ODNB, 11, pp. 504–5. Discussed alongside the Hothams and other Yorkshire side-changers in Hopper, ‘“Fitted for desperation”’.
80. Hopper, ‘“Fitted for desperation”’. See also Vallance, Revolutionary England, p. 68.
81. Gardiner, I, pp. 142, 159–61, II, pp. 103–4; David Scott, ‘Hotham, Sir John, First Baronet (1589–1645)’, ODNB, 28, pp. 257–9; David Scott, ‘Hotham, John (1610–1645)’, ODNB, 28, pp. 259–61.
82. Scott, ‘Hotham, Sir John’; Scott, ‘Hotham, John’.
83. History of Parliament Trust, London, unpublished article on Sir Matthew Boynton, Bart, for 1604–29 section by Simon Healey. I am grateful to the History of Parliament Trust for allowing me to see this article in draft. History, Topography, and Directory of East Yorkshire (with Hull) (Preston: T. Bulmer and sons, 1892), p. 152; Bulstrode Whitelocke, Memorials of the English Affairs, 4 vols. (Oxford, 1853), I, pp. 194, 206, 487.
84. Ashton, Counter-Revolution, p. 403.
85. Hopper suggests that, had these defections been co-ordinated, it might have changed the course of the entire war: ‘“Fitted for desperation”’.
86. Young and Holmes, English Civil War, p. 141; for the pressure to surrender to avoid unnecessary loss of life see Donagan, ‘Codes and Conduct’, pp. 79–80.
87. For the Chudleighs, see Gardiner, I, p. 139; Mary Wolffe, ‘Chudleigh, Sir George, Baronet (1582–1658)’, ODNB, 11, pp. 570–71; Mary Wolffe, ‘Chudleigh, James (1617–1643)’, ODNB, 11, pp. 571–2. For Massey see Gardiner, I, pp. 198–9; Andrew Warmington, ‘Massey, Sir Edward (d. 1674)’, ODNB, 37, pp. 208–11. For Carew see Gardiner, I, pp. 207–8; Stephen Wright, ‘Carew, Sir Alexander, Second Baronet (1609–1644)’, ODNB, 10, pp. 40–41, quotation at p. 40.
88. Gardiner, I, 162–3; Young and Holmes, English Civil War, p. 113; Fletcher, Sussex, p. 289. For the intellectual and social context see Barbara Donagan, ‘The Web of Honour: Soldiers, Christians, and Gentlemen in the English Civil War’, HJ, 44 (2001), 363–89, esp. pp. 384–7.
89. Gardiner, I, pp. 164–5, 199.
90. Young and Holmes, English Civil War, p. 142; See also Charles Carlton, Going to the Wars: The Experience of the English Civil Wars, 1638–1651 (London, 1992), pp. 218–19.
10. The War of the Three Kingdoms
1. The standard account of Confederate politics is Micheàl Ó Siochrú, Confederate Ireland, 1642–1649: A Constitutional and Political Analysis (Dublin, 1999): see here esp. pp. 17–20. For a concise narrative see Patrick J. Corish, ‘The Rising of 1641 and the Catholic Confederacy’, in T. W. Moody, F. X. Martin and F. J. Byrne (eds.), A New History of Ireland, vol. 3: Early Modern Ireland 1534–1691 (Oxford, 1976), pp. 289–316, quotation at p. 302. There is a useful summary in Austin Woolrych, Britain in Revolution 1625–1660 (Oxford, 2002), pp. 268–73, and a fluent overview in Roy Foster, Modern Ireland 1600–1972 (London, 1988), ch. 4. For analysis of the implications for Ireland’s relationship with British authority, see Nicholas Canny, Making Ireland British 1580–1650 (Oxford, 2001), ch. 9. For the armies in Ireland see James Scott Wheeler, ‘Four Armies in Ireland’, in Jane H. Ohlmeyer (ed.), Ireland from Independence to Occupation 1641–1660 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 43–65. This collection contains a number of other important essays on this period in Irish history. For Plunkett See also Tadhg Ó hAnnrach´in, ‘Plunkett, Sir Nicholas (1602–1680)’, ODNB, 44, pp. 645–6.
2. For Ormond see Toby Barnard, ‘Butler, James, first Duke of Ormond (1610–1688)’, ODNB, 9, pp. 153–63. He was created First Duke of Ormond in 1661.
3. David Stevenson, The Scottish Revolution, 1637–1644 (Newton Abbot, 1973), pp. 243–6; David Stevenson, Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Scotland, 1644–1651 (London, 1977), pp. 1–2; David Stevenson, ‘Monro, Sir George, of Culrain and Newmore (d. 1694)’, ODNB, 38, pp. 649–50. See also Wheeler, ‘Four Armies’. For the Irish adventurers See also Canny, Making Ireland British, pp. 553–6 and the references therein.
4. Ó Siochrú, Confederate Ireland, pp. 63–8; Corish, ‘Rising of 1641’, pp. 303–9; Woolrych, Britain in Revolution, pp. 272–3. For the impact of the Cessation on the political and military cause of the Confederates see Wheeler, ‘Four Armies’. Gardiner, I, ch. 9 also contains interesting material.
5. Bulstrode Whitelocke, Memorials of the English Affairs, 4 vols. (Oxford, 1853), I, p. 238.
6. Corish, ‘Rising of 1641’, pp. 303–9; Stevenson, Scottish Revolution, pp. 265–75.
7. For the failure of moderate Scottish royalism see Stevenson, Scottish Revolution, ch. 8.
8. Stevenson, Revolution and Counter-Revolution, pp. 4–5.
9. Quoted in Gardiner, I, pp. 177–8.
10. For Charles’s diplomacy See also Richard Cust, Charles I: A Political Life (Harlow, 2005), esp. pp. 373–4.
11. Stevenson, Scottish Revolution, ch. 9.
12. W. A. Shaw, A History of the English Church during the Civil Wars and under the Commonwealth, 2 vols. (London, 1900), vol. 1, ch. 2; Stevenson, Scottish Revolution, pp. 279–80, 285, 288–9.
13. Gardiner, I, p. 229; Stevenson, Scottish Revolution, pp. 283–4.
14. Stevenson, Scottish Revolution, pp. 284–9. For the text of the final version see Gardiner, CD, pp. 267–71.
15. David Martin Jones, Conscience and Allegiance in Seventeenth Century England: The Political Significance of Oaths and Engagements (Woodbridge, 1999), pp. 125–46; Edward Vallance, Revolutionary England and the National Covenant: State Oaths, Protestantism and the Political Nation, 1553–1682 (Woodbridge, 2005), chs. 6–7.
16. Stevenson, Scottish Revolution, pp. 284–7.
17. Ibid., pp. 287–9.
18. Shaw, History of the English Church, I, pp. 145–7, quotation at p. 147.
19. Quoted in ibid., pp. 149–50.
20. Ibid., pp. 149–52.
21. Gardiner, CD, pp. 268–9.
22. Julie Spraggon, Puritan Iconoclasm during the English Civil War (Woodbridge, 2003), pp. 75–7; Margaret Aston, England’s Iconoclasts, vol. 1: Laws Against Images (Oxford, 1988), chs. 1–2; Margaret Aston, ‘Puritans and Iconoclasm, 1560–1660’, in Christopher Durston and Jacqueline Eales (eds.
), The Culture of English Puritanism, 1560–1700 (Basingstoke, 1996), pp. 92–121, at pp. 117–19. The September order and the ordinance are reprinted in ibid., pp. 257–8, 259–60, but the latter appears to be misdated to 28 August: see A&O, I, pp. 265–6; LJ, vi, pp. 200–201. For Herring See also Keith Lindley, Popular Politics and Religion in Civil War London (Aldershot, 1997), esp. pp. 45–6. For the relationship between the purging of Norwich Cathedral and crystallization of parties see John T. Evans, Seventeenth-Century Norwich: Politics, Religion and Government, 1620–1690 (Oxford, 1979), ch. 4, esp. pp. 128–9.
23. Trevor Cooper (ed.), The Journal of William Dowsing: Iconoclasm in East Anglia during the English Civil War (Woodbridge, 2001), pp. 156–301.
24. John Morrill, ‘William Dowsing and the Administration of Iconoclasm in the Puritan Revolution’, in Cooper (ed.), Journal of William Dowsing, pp. 1–28; John Morrill, ‘Dowsing, William (bap. 1596, d. 1668)’, ODNB, 16, pp. 817–19.
25. Spraggon, Puritan Iconoclasm, pp. 120–28, 225–31. Two commissions to Dowsing from Manchester are reprinted in ibid., pp. 264–5, and, with much other useful material, in Cooper (ed.), Journal of William Dowsing. The essays collected there are invaluable. See also Aston, England’s Iconoclasts, vol. 1, pp. 74–84.
26. Morrill, ‘William Dowsing’, pp. 8–9. Manchester took a personal interest in the visitation of Cambridge University over the winter 1643–4: J. D. Twigg, ‘The Parliamentary Visitation of the University of Cambridge 1644–1645’, EHR, 98 (1983), 513–28.
27. For the longer-term history see Aston, England’s Iconoclasts, vol. 1; Aston, ‘Puritans and Iconoclasm’; Patrick Collinson, ‘From Iconoclasm to Iconophobia: The Cultural Impact of the Second English Reformation’, reprinted in Peter Marshall (ed.), The Impact of the English Reformation 1500–1640 (London, 1997), pp. 278–308.
28. Cust, Charles I, pp. 381–5. For attendance See also Gardiner, I, p. 300, who puts the figures higher, at 82 and 175 (including those who would have liked to attend but could not). For the Westminster figures see David L. Smith, The Stuart Parliaments, 1603–1689 (London, 1999), p. 129.
29. Cust, Charles I, pp. 381–2.
30. Ibid., pp. 373–88; Gardiner, I, pp. 268–73. The Ogle plot is placed in the context of contacts between moderates on both sides by David L. Smith, Constitutional Royalism and the Search for Settlement c. 1640–1649 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 116–17.
31. Cust, Charles I, esp. ch. 6.
32. Joyce Lee Malcolm, ‘All the King’s Men: The Impact of the Crown’s Irish Soldiers on the English Civil War’, Irish Historical Studies, 21 (1979), 239–64, at pp. 251–5 (she puts the total at 21,000 at p. 263); Mark Stoyle, Soldiers and Strangers: An Ethnic History of the English Civil War (New Haven, Conn., 2005), pp. 56–61 and table at pp. 209–10. This agrees with John Barratt, Cavaliers: The Royalist Army at War, 1642–1646 (Stroud, 2000), pp. 138–9; Malcolm Wanklyn and Frank Jones, A Military History of the English Civil War, 1642–1646: Strategy and Tactics (Harlow, 2005), p. 15. Woolrych, Britain in Revolution, p. 273, suggests only 5,000, mainly Protestants.
33. Malcolm, ‘All the King’s Men’, argued for a very significant impact, esp. pp. 255–63. These claims are strongly criticized by Stoyle, Soldiers and Strangers, pp. 61–5; Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, pp. 15–16.
34. Gardiner, I, pp. 294–7. For Barthomley, See also Barbara Donagan, ‘Atrocity, War Crime, and Treason in the English Civil War’, AHR, 99 (1994), 1137–66, at pp. 1152–4.
35. Quoted in Stoyle, Soldiers and Strangers, p. 66.
36. Stoyle, Soldiers and Strangers, pp. 59–60. This may perhaps have been influenced by the suggestion made about the Irish women captured at Nantwich in January: ibid., pp. 67–8.
37. Ibid., pp. 68–9. For Bolton, ‘the Geneva of the north’, See also Ernest Broxap, The Great Civil War in Lancashire (1642–51), 2nd edn (Manchester, 1973), pp. 3, 120–25.
38. A&O, I, pp. 554–5.
39. Gardiner, III, p. 26.
40. Stoyle, Soldiers and Strangers, p. 69; Donagan, ‘Atrocity’, pp. 1148–9. There seem to have been two other hangings at Wem: Richard Gough, The History of Myddle, ed. David Hey (Harmondsworth, 1981), pp. 74–5.
41. Stoyle, Soldiers and Strangers, chs. 1–4; Lloyd Bowen, ‘Representations of Wales and the Welsh during the Civil Wars and Interregnum’, Historical Research, 77 (2004), 358–76; Joad Raymond, Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 220–22.
42. A&O, I, pp. 554–5.
43. A point also made by Bowen, ‘Representations of Wales’, p. 365; See also Barbara Donagan, ‘Codes and Conduct in the English Civil War’, PP, 118 (1988), 65–96, at pp. 93–4.
44. Peter Young and Richard Holmes, The English Civil War: A Military History of the Three Civil Wars 1642–1651 (Ware, 2000), pp. 146–9; Malcolm Wanklyn, Decisive Battles of the English Civil War: Myth and Reality (Barnsley, 2006), chs. 6–7; Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, ch. 11.
45. Gardiner, I, p. 237.
46. For royalist strategy in this period see Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, ch. 12. For the fighting See also Young and Holmes, English Civil War, pp. 151–64; for Hopton’s injury see ibid., pp. 130–31.
47. A&O, I, pp. 333–9; Gardiner, I, pp. 250–52.
48. Clive Holmes, The Eastern Association in the English Civil War (Cambridge, 1974), esp. chs. 5–8.
49. Gardiner, I, pp. 238, 253, 294; and see above, p. 316.
11. Marston Moor
1. For the speeches, see above, pp. 92, 125–6.
2. Gardiner, I, p. 250; D. E. Kennedy, The English Revolution 1642–1649 (Basingstoke, 2000), p. 37.
3. Wallace Notestein, ‘The Establishment of the Committee of Both Kingdoms’, AHR, 17 (1912), 477–95; Lotte Glow, ‘The Committee of Safety’, EHR, 80 (1965), 289–313; John Adamson, ‘The Triumph of Oligarchy: The Management of War and the Committee of Both Kingdoms, 1644–1645’, in Chris R. Kyle and Jason Peacey (eds.), Parliament at Work: Parliamentary Committees, Political Power and Public Access in Early Modern England (Woodbridge, 2002), pp. 101–27.
4. Gardiner, I, pp. 301–2; Edward Vallance, ‘Protestation, Vow, Covenant and Engagement: Swearing Allegiance in the English Civil War’, Historical Research, 75 (2002), 408–24, at pp. 417–22.
5. Gardiner, I, pp. 246–7; Anthony Milton, ‘Laud, William (1573–1645)’, ODNB, 32, pp. 655–70.
6. Gardiner, I, pp. 273–4. For the Brooke plot see above, p. 316.
7. Peter Young and Richard Holmes, The English Civil War: A Military History of the Three Civil Wars, 1642–1651 (Ware, 2000), pp. 167–71; Malcolm Wanklyn and Frank Jones, A Military History of the English Civil War, 1642–1646: Strategy and Tactics (Harlow, 2005), ch. 13; Malcolm Wanklyn, Decisive Battles of the English Civil War: Myth and Reality (Barnsley, 2006), chs. 8–9.
8. Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, ch. 13 and pp. 157–62.
9. Young and Holmes, English Civil War, p. 181.
10. Ibid., pp. 175–80.
11. Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, pp. 162–5; Young and Holmes, English Civil War, pp. 181–4; Gardiner, I, pp. 331, 352–3; for the Oxford parliament and its place in royalist politics see Richard Cust, Charles I: A Political Life (Harlow, 2005), pp. 381–4.
12. Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, pp. 165–6; Young and Holmes, English Civil War, pp. 184–5; Gardiner, I, pp. 358–62.
13. Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, pp. 166–9; Young and Holmes, English Civil War, pp. 185–9.
14. Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, ch. 15; Young and Holmes, English Civil War, pp. 190–91; Gardiner, I, p. 370.
15. Gardiner, I, p. 371, emphasis added.
16. Ibid., emphasis added.
17. Ibid.; Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, pp. 178–80.
18. For the following three paragraphs see Young and Holmes, English Civil War, pp. 193–203; Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, ch. 16; Wanklyn, Decisive Battles, chs. 10–11; Gardiner, I, pp. 374–
82. For an account emphasizing the importance of Cromwell’s actions, see Frank Kitson, Old Ironsides: The Military Biography of Oliver Cromwell (London, 2004), pp. 380–90. Wanklyn is sceptical about the influence on the course of the battle of the rabbit holes which marked parts of the field: Decisive Battles, p. 111 (see Kitson, Old Ironsides, p. 87).
19. Young and Holmes, English Civil War, p. 204; Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, pp. 190–91; Gardiner, II, pp. 6–8.
20. Young and Holmes, English Civil War, pp. 204–5; Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, pp. 190–96; Gardiner, II, pp. 8–11.
21. Young and Holmes, English Civil War, pp. 207–12; Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, pp. 196–7; Gardiner, II, pp. 12–19.
22. Gardiner, II, p. 18.
23. Barbara Donagan, ‘Codes and Conduct in the English Civil War’, PP, 118 (1988), pp. 65–95, at pp. 87–91.
24. Gardiner, II, p. 19.
25. Clive Holmes, The Eastern Association in the English Civil War (Cambridge, 1974), pp. 197–8. See also Gardiner, II, p. 3.
26. Gardiner, II, pp. 31–45; Young and Holmes, English Civil War, pp. 213–16; Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, pp. 197–202; for a downward revision of the customary estimate of the disparity in numerical strength see Wanklyn, Decisive Battles, p. 145.
27. Wanklyn, Decisive Battles, chs. 12–13; Young and Holmes, English Civil War, pp. 216–21; Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, ch. 18; Gardiner, II, pp. 44–53.
28. Gardiner, II, pp. 52–63, quotations at pp. 58–9; Young and Holmes, English Civil War, pp. 221–3; Wanklyn and Jones, Military History, p. 201; Austin Woolrych, Britain in Revolution 1625–1660 (Oxford, 2002), quotation at p. 291.
29. Ian Roy, ‘The Royalist Army in the First Civil War’, unpublished D.Phil. thesis, Oxford (1963), pp. 115–16, 134–8, 185–99.
30. David Stevenson, Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Scotland, 1644–1651 (London, 1977), pp. 4–9.
31. Woolrych, Britain in Revolution, p. 293.
32. Gardiner, II, ch. 26; Stevenson, Revolution and Counter-Revolution, pp. 19–29. Casualty figures quoted from Charles Carlton, Going to the Wars: The Experience of the British Civil Wars 1638–1651 (London, 1992), p. 212. Large numbers of Scots were killed in England, Wales and Ireland, of course, just as English troops died in Scotland. Similarly, the death toll for England and Wales cited above includes Irish troops.
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