by Greg Marley
ECOLOGY, HABITAT, AND OCCURRENCE
The sulphur shelf is a weak parasite on living trees and a vigorous saprobe on dead wood. Its mycelium colonizes the heartwood of a mature living tree through a wound and can live and fruit for many years without causing noticeably reduced vigor to its host. As it grows and colonizes the tree, the mycelia rot the heartwood, feeding on the cellulose of the wood and vastly weakening the main roots, the trunk, or both. Once a tree or branch dies and falls to the ground, the mushroom will continue to flourish, fruiting for a number of years on a large log and eventually reducing it to crumbling remains. I recently photographed a luminously beautiful cluster gracing the top of a red oak log. The mushroom has been fruiting on the same length of downed oak in June for more than twenty years, slowly fruiting further out from the butt end of the tree as the fungus consumed the nutrients in the wood.
The sulphur shelf is able to grow on a wide variety of trees, though in New England it is most common on oak, ash, and cherry. It can be found fruiting on living trees or dead wood and occasionally can be found fruiting on the ground where there is buried wood or roots (see L. cincinnatus above). This species will fruit throughout much of the summer and fall beginning in June and continuing through October with a tendency to peak in early autumn if the rain cooperates. Though the fruiting bodies will recur on the same tree for many years, it is unusual for fruit to be produced every year. In Maine I have observed that a sulphur shelf tree will fruit every two to three years on average, more often on oak and less often on ash.
EDIBILITY, PREPARATION, AND PRESERVATION
With the combination of bright orange top and yellow pore surface, this fungus cannot easily be mistaken for another mushroom. It is considered to be a good edible and enjoyed by most mushroom hunters, including me. These are the two principal reasons Dr. Christensen had for including the sulphur shelf in his list of foolproof edibles. The firm flesh, bright colors, and good flavor make it an attractive staple in many mushroom dishes. The bright colors are not affected by cooking, so this fungus adds flavor and color to soups, omelets, stir-fries, and sauces. The texture of the chicken mushroom is firm and holds up well in simmered sauces, soups, and dishes.
CHICKEN MUSHROOM STIR-FRY
Because of its firm texture and beautiful color, this fungus lends itself to a stir-fry. The color remains with cooking and brightens any mixture of meat and veggies used. Though this is written as a vegetarian recipe, it can be adapted easily to chicken or another meat. If using meat, add it with the oil and ginger and quickly cook through. Remove before adding veggies and return it when the sauce is added.
Vegetables:
(Use these or be creative with your combination of fresh veggies.)
1–2 medium-size carrots, sliced inch
1–2 cups baby bok choy or other Chinese cabbage chopped into bite-size pieces
1 red pepper, cut into bite-size pieces
2 cups chicken mushroom sliced into ¼-inch, bite-sized pieces
1 cup onions, cut into bite size (I like sweet onions for this dish.)
1 head broccoli, cut into florets
20–30 snow pea pods
1 thumb-size piece of ginger, julienne-sliced into matchstick-like pieces
3 tablespoons white wine (or stock) for stir-frying
1 tablespoon peanut oil for frying
Stir-fry sauce:
cup stock (vegetarian or chicken stock)
2 tablespoons fish sauce (or soy sauce)
1 tablespoon lime or lemon juice
6–8 cloves of garlic, minced
1 teaspoon honey (or brown sugar)
2 teaspoon cornstarch dissolved in 4 tablespoons water
1 teaspoon red chili flakes OR 1 teaspoon chili sauce OR ½ teaspoon cayenne pepper
1 teaspoon sesame oil (optional)
Start the sauce in a small, heavy saucepan by placing all ingredients except cornstarch and sesame oil over heat. Allow to boil gently for about 5 minutes and then reduce heat, add cornstarch, and stir till sauce thickens (should take 30–45 seconds at most).
For the stir-fry, make certain all your ingredients are prepped and ready before starting; things move swiftly. Make sure you are constantly in attendance to keep your ingredients moving in the pan.
Heat a wok or heavy, high-sided frying pan over medium-high heat and add peanut oil, ginger, and the carrots and cook for 2–3 minutes before adding mushrooms and allowing to cook for another minute.
Add a little wine as needed to keep the ingredients from drying out.
Add the rest of the veggies and of the sauce and continue cooking for 2–3 minutes. (If using chicken or shrimp, add the mostly cooked meat back in at this point). Broccoli should be softened somewhat but still firm and bright green.
Add the rest of the sauce and correct for taste.
Serve over your favorite type of rice.
SHAGGY MANE, AKA LAWYER’S WIG
Genus: Coprinus
Species: C. comatus
The shaggy mane welcomes in the autumn weather in the same way that morels are a harbinger of spring. This bullet-headed mushroom is a common resident in suburban and rural landscapes and pops up from disturbed open ground around the time you start searching under the car seat for the window scraper the morning you greet that first heavy frost. (See #4 in the color insert.) It is a heartwarming sight to see a lawn or field with dozens of these benign whitish missiles protruding through the grass. The shaggy mane’s reputation as an easily identified, safe edible without problematic look-alikes remains unsullied in the new millennium. Yet, in my experience, shaggy manes are the least frequently eaten of the Foolproof Four.
TAXONOMY
Taxonomists have not been as gentle with the organization of this group as mycophagists have been with their edibility. The genus Coprinus has undergone a complete overhaul following recent molecular analysis of the family of meadow mushroom fame. The shaggy mane, the originally described species of the genus, remains a species of Coprinus but with only three others. The remaining 160 or so species have been divided among three other genera based on molecular and morphological analysis. If you are interested in more details about Coprinus taxonomy, consider seeking out the work of Scott Redhead15 or refer to the papers listed on Tom Volk’s page on shaggy manes.16
DESCRIPTION
Shaggy manes have a distinctive cylindrical or bullet shape that stands out in the open areas where they occur. The bodies are typically 4 to 8 inches high (but occasionally much taller), and no more than 2 inches wide. The cap is white with a pale brown apex and covered with coarse brown-tipped scales, giving it its common name. When the mushroom is young, the cap almost completely covers the stalk that reaches down through the grass duff to anchor in the ground. With age, the pure white, hollow stalk, several inches longer than the cap, becomes more visible along with a fleshy movable annular ring that soon disappears.
The gills of the shaggy mane are completely covered by the young cap as it hugs the stalk. They are densely packed and initially pure white, though with age they begin to turn pink and then rapidly darken to black as, from bottom to top, they melt into an inky liquid mass of spores. This is known as deliquescing, a process in which the cells of the cap self-digest as a method of aiding spore release. The gills “melt” beginning at the base of the cap and, as the spores are released, the gill tissue turns into a watery mass and exposes the tissue above to the air for spore release. In the process, many of the spores become a part of the inky mess that gives this genus its common name, “inky caps.” In days long past, this black mushroom spore goo was used as writing ink and proved to be quite durable.
ECOLOGY, HABITAT, AND OCCURRENCE
Shaggy manes are saprobes that grow on buried wood or in soil that is rich in partially decomposed vegetable matter. You will find them fruiting just before and after the first frosts of autumn. Occasionally they also fruit lightly in the spring but cannot be counted on. Look for them on recently disturbed or “made” g
round where earth moving, landscaping, lawn creation, or logging has resulted in buried wood, dead roots, or other forms of buried organic matter. Shaggy manes can grow singly, but are more commonly found fruiting in trooping numbers clustered or scattered over open ground in lawns, fields, roadsides, or waste ground. At times they fruit in great profusion in a small area and the lucky passing mycophagist can leisurely pick only the cleanest young, firm fruit.
A few years ago, the owners of a large seaside estate that was, unfortunately, located close to a highway decided to redouble their privacy by building a 6-foot-high berm of earth that they then planted in rugosa roses and evergreen shrubs. The berm was made up of a mixture of soil transported in for the job mixed with soil pushed up from the land beyond, and was therefore a jumble of soil and plant material. A year later and for the two following seasons, shaggy manes appeared in huge clusters of scores of mushrooms as the fungus took advantage of the mass of easily available dead organic matter. In a manner typical of this species, the third year there were a few and this past year I saw none, as the task of breaking down the easily available duff was complete.
EDIBILITY, PREPARATION, AND PRESERVATION
Once you have found the bounty and picked the crop, all pretenses of leisure ends since you must cook or freeze your prize within a day or you will be left with an inky mess. Picking these mushrooms only seems to increase the speed of decay, and refrigeration does little to slow the breakdown process. Cooking stops the process of “inkinization” and sautéed mushrooms can be kept refrigerated for several days or frozen for later use.
Shaggy manes, like all edible inky caps, are best picked and eaten when they are young and firm. If they have begun to darken, the mature tissue can be cut off, but only the pure white caps and stems are fit to eat. I have, however, known people who actively encourage the breakdown and use the resulting ink to make a land-based “squid ink” pasta. Shaggys are best cooked lightly in butter or light olive oil and enjoyed simply with salt and pepper. They have a distinct, full, and pleasant flavor and are also a great addition to a cream soup. To preserve for future use, lightly sauté the caps and freeze them in individual portions in zip-lock bags or small containers. Do not even think of trying to dry these mushrooms unless you pick them quite young and can use a hot-air dryer!
SHAGGY MANE POTATO LEEK SOUP
The first time I made this easy soup and served it to friends almost guaranteed I’d make it again. They haven’t stopped asking for the next chance to enjoy it. This recipe also can be used with other mushrooms and adapts well to horse or meadow mushrooms.
1 pound fresh shaggy manes (more or less), cleaned and chopped coarsely
1 large leek or 2 smaller (use white and pale green portions), sliced into rings
3–5 medium potatoes
1 cup chicken stock
1 cup heavy cream
½ cup dry white wine
2 tablespoons butter or mixed with olive oil
Salt and freshly ground pepper to taste
2 cups water
Fresh dill for garnish (optional)
Peel (optional) and quarter potatoes. Add to soup pot and just cover with the water. Boil moderately until quite tender, 20–30 minutes.
Remove dark green leek leaves and roots. Slice lengthwise and rinse under cold water to remove all grit trapped between layers. Slice leeks crosswise into half rings. Heat medium pan over a medium flame. Add butter/oil and cook leeks gently for about 7–10 minutes, making sure they do not dry out. Add a few dashes of wine or stock at a time to keep moist.
When the leeks are nearly done, add the mushrooms and a generous grind of pepper and sauté for 5 minutes. Add wine and chicken stock and stir until blended.
When potatoes are tender, remove from heat and blend both potatoes and mushroom leek mixture in a food processor until smooth. Use as much of the potato water as needed to maintain a somewhat thickened consistency. Return to pot.
Simmer very gently, stirring occasionally to avoid scorching. When almost boiling, add cream and salt and pepper to taste. Heat gently but do not boil.
In a world that is constantly changing, the relative endurance of the Foolproof Four is heartening, but it is also telling because, of course, even they are not entirely foolproof. People often ask me questions designed to confirm their assumptions about the edibility of a mushroom. The typical question is, “Aren’t all _________ mushrooms edible?” People who have known me for a long time recognize my frozen pause as I decide on the most appropriate way to burst the questioner’s bubble. Making decisions on the edibility of a mushroom can be made only one species, even one mushroom, at a time, based on certainty of both the identification and edibility of the mushroom. Even in a list of four safe mushrooms—a list that has endured for more than sixty-five years—two of the mushrooms are known to occasionally disrupt the fragile gastrointestinal equilibrium of some people who eat them, and our understanding of all of them has undergone significant revisions since Christensen first presented the world with his list. Any list of foolproof mushrooms must carry with it a caveat and the reality of individual vulnerabilities and, therefore, is never completely foolproof.
I occasionally think about developing a Foolproof Four list for Maine, or a Triumphant Three, or Fantastic Five, or a Sumptuous Six. The mushrooms would be different, but the concept remains the same. There is value in shining a light on a select group of mushrooms, easily identified, commonly occurring, and safely edible. For the novice mushroomer, such a list is one part of a roadmap into the new territory of mycophagy, where the initial exploration always brings anxiety and perceived peril along with the excitement. In the following pages I describe a few great wild mushrooms that would be apt candidates for foolproof list in Maine, the Northeast, and many other temperate locales.
4
CHANTERELLES
Aurum et argentums facile est,
Lenamque tonamque mittere;
Boletos mittere difficile est.
It is possible to live without gold and silver,
and one can resist the temptations of seductive women,
but to abstain from eating mushrooms is difficult.
MARTIAL (43–104 AD)
T here are certain diverse pleasures that mark summer in New England. The Fourth of July parade with sirens, banners, bands blaring, and sunburned toddlers scrambling for candy tossed from passing floats is, to some, a signal of the formal shift from late spring to full summer. For others, the first raking of Maine blueberries in early August ushers in the midpoint of the season when we no longer need to explore the depths of the freezer for berries to make a pie or cobbler. For those of a fungal bent, summer’s true arrival cannot be acknowledged until the first chanterelles poke warm golden caps from beneath their leafy covers. Of course, being mushrooms, with all the predictability of a Siamese cat, the date on which summer arrives in the guise of my first chanterelle omelet can vary a fair bit from year to year, strongly dependent upon the vagaries of weather. Here on the coast of Maine we can generally count on the first harvest by the second week in July, after the strawberries and before the first blueberries.
There are undoubtedly many reasons why chanterelles are at the top of the mushroom heap in popularity, but chief among them is their great flavor. Other reasons are their relatively common occurrence in Maine’s woods and the ease of identification. The combination of vase shape, bright golden coloration, and blunted ridges in place of knife-like gills make chanterelles distinctive and easily discerned. The bright color and their habit of growing in scattered clusters make them easy to spot on the forest floor. When I am walking through a forest looking for chanterelles, my eyes scan the woods in an arc of perhaps thirty yards, knowing that their bright coloration will shine out through the predominate greens and browns of the forest floor like stars in the black heavens. Once I spot the first mushroom, I slow my pace and examine the area around the first mushroom, carefully looking for other chanterelles. Since they fruit in groups, I
often find others partially hidden in the leaves nearby. Contrast this searching style with morel hunting; there is a world of difference. Morels come into the world with all the camouflage of a motionless cottontail rabbit in the leaves. It almost requires that you feel one get crushed under your bare feet before your eyes can take it in. Even after spotting the first morel in an area, it requires careful, slow examination to see the others secreted in the nearby duff.
A third reason for chanterelles’ popularity as an edible is their predictability. They regularly fruit in the same location in successive years. In a good chanterelle habitat, I know which tree to check in the forest and which side of the tree to examine in order to find the same patch of chanterelles I have collected there a dozen times over the past twenty years. This personal observation mirrors the results of a long-term study on the impact of chanterelle harvesting carried out in a coastal forest by the Oregon Mycological Society. They also have recorded regular fruiting of the Pacific golden chanterelle in the same small area over many successive years.1
TAXONOMY
The name chanterelle generally refers to the mushroom known as the golden chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius; #7 in the color insert), but also is applied to the genus Cantharellus and the whole family of mushrooms collectively known as “chanterelles and their allies.” This includes the genus Craterellus, home of the famous black trumpet mushroom in addition to several other notable edibles, and the genus Gomphus, home to the aptly named pigs ears (G. clavatus) and scaly vase chanterelle (G. floccosus). The final member of the chanterelle allies is the uncommon blue chanterelle (Polyozellus multiplex), a beautiful and fascinating mushroom of the northern fir forests. The best known and talked about are members of the Cantharellus and Craterellus genera, in part because almost all of the prominent edibles are here. With DNA research bringing into question taxonomy that has long held fast, the two main groupings of the chanterelles have been divided along lines that, fortunately, are primarily visible to any naked eye. Those mushrooms with a hollow stem are included in Craterellus. Those mushrooms that are vase shaped and solid are in Cantharellus.